B.K.S. IYENGAR

Light on the Yoga
Sutras of Patañjali

Dedication

This work is my offering to
my Invisible, First and Foremost Guru
Lord Patañjali

Foreword by Godfrey Devereux, author of Dynamic Yoga

Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras are the bible of yoga. However, their inaccessibility in the hands of scholars and academics has left yoga practitioners adrift with neither chart nor compass. B.K.S. Iyengar’s translation, based on over fifty years of dedicated and accomplished practice and teaching, is unique in its relevance and utility to contemporary yoga practitioners. The depth of his practice and understanding shines through his elucidation of the often terse and obscure sutras. Iyengar’s ability to elucidate Patañjali in pragmatic terms is an extension of his clarification of the subtlety and integrity of yoga practice. This is most evident in the rigorous precision with which he understands and articulates the body in yoga postures. However, it goes further and much deeper than that. In his unique investigation of alignment, Iyengar not only reveals the therapeutic necessity of stuctural integrity in the body, but also its subtle and equally necessary impact on the flow of energy and consciousness in the mind.

What Iyengar has proved, for those willing to apply themselves to test it, is that the apparent divide between matter and spirit, body and soul, and physical and spiritual is only that: apparent. Through his insistence on structural integrity he has opened the spiritual doorway to millions of people for whom the mind would otherwise never give up its subtleties. Here, in his presentation of Patañjali, that door is flung wide open. This is especially clear, to even the least academically minded student, in his profound and practical interpretations of the sutras relating to Asana and pranayama. Here, especially, Iyengar’s genius comes as a great gift of clarity and insight that can only deepen the understanding and support the practice of any keen student.

Iyengar’s incomparable experience as an Indian teacher of Westerners, combined with his experience as a Brahmin and participant in a genuine lineage of the yoga tradition, gives his perspective an authority and authenticity that is all too often lacking. It offers a lucid and pragmatic interpretation of the insights and subtleties of yoga’s root guru. To practice yoga without the profound and panoramic inner cartography of the Yoga Sutras is to be adrift in a difficult and potentially dangerous ocean. To use that map without the compass of Iyengar’s deep and authoritative experience, is to handicap oneself unnecessarily. No yoga practitioner should be without this classic and invaluable work.

Introduction to the New Edition by B. K. S. Iyengar

I express my sense of gratitude to Thorsons, who are bringing out my Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali in this new attractive design, as a feast not only for the physical eyes but also for the intellectual and spiritual eye.

As a mortal soul, it is a bit of an embarrassment for me with my limited intelligence to write on the immortal work of Patañjali on the subject of yoga.

If God is considered the seed of all knowledge (sarvajña bijan), Patañjali is all knower, all wise (sarvajñan), of all knowledge. The third part of his Yoga Sutras (the vibuti pada) makes it clear to us that we should respect him as a knower of all knowledge and a versatile personality.

It is impossible, even for sophisticated minds, to comprehend fully what knowledge he had. We find him speaking on an enormous range of subjects – art, dance, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, physics, chemistry, psychology, biology, neurology, telepathy, education, time and gravitational theory – with a divine spiritual knowledge.

He was a perfect master of cosmic energy; he knew the pranic energy centres in the body; his intelligence (buddhi) was as clean and clear as crystal and his words express him as a pure perfect being.

Patañjali’s sutras make use of his great versatility of language and mind. He clothes the righteous and virtuous aspects of religious matters with a secular fabric and in so doing is able to skilfully present the wisdom of both the material and the spiritual world, blending them as a universal culture.

Patañjali fills each sutra with his experiential intelligence, stretching it like a thread (sutra), and weaving it into a garland of pearls of wisdom to flavour and savour by those who love and live in yoga, as wise-men in their lives.

Each sutra conveys the practice as well as the philosophy behind the practice, as a practical philosophy for aspirants and seekers (sadhakas) to follow in life.

What is sadhana?

Sadhana is a methodical, sequential means to accomplish the sadhana’s aims in life. The sadhana’s aims are right duty (dharma), a rightful purpose and means (artha), right inclinations (kama) and ultimate release or emancipation (moksa).

If dharma is the atonement of duty (dharma sastra), artha is the means to purification of action (karma sastra). Our inclinations (kama) are made good through study of sacred texts and growth towards wisdom (svadhyaya and jñana sastra), and emancipation (moksa) is reached through devotion (bhakti sastra) and meditation (dhyana sastra).

It is dharma that uplifts man who has fallen physically, mentally, morally, intellectually and spiritually, or who is about to fall. Therefore, dharma is that which upholds, sustains and supports man.

These aims are all stages on the road to perfect knowledge (vedanta). The term vedanta comes from Veda, meaning knowledge, and anta meaning the end of knowledge. The true end of knowledge is emancipation and liberation from all imperfections. Hence the journey, or vedanta, is an act of pursuit of the vision of wisdom to transform one’s conduct and actions in order to experience the ultimate reality of life.

Due to lack of knowledge or misunderstanding, fear, love of the self, attachment and aversion with respect to the material world, one’s actions and conduct become disturbed. This disturbance shows as lust (kama), wrath (krodha), greed (lobha), infatuation (moha), intoxication (mada) and malice (matsarya). All of these emotional turbulences affect the psyche by veiling the intelligence.

The yoga sadhana of Patañjali comes to us as a penance in order to minimise or eradicate these disturbed and destructive emotive thoughts and the actions that accrue from them.

The yoga sadhana of Patañjali

The Sadhana is a rhythmic, three-tiered practice (sadhana-traya), covering the eight aspects or petals of yoga in a capsule as kriya yoga, the yoga of action, whereby all actions are surrendered to the Divinity (see Sutra II.1 in the sadhana pada). These three tiers (sadhana-traya) represent the body (kaya), the mind (manasa) and the speech (vak).

Hence:

At the level of the body, tapas, or the drive towards purity, develops the student through practice on the path of right action (karma marga).

At the level of the mind, through careful study of the self and the mind in it’s consciousness, the student develops self-knowledge, svadhyaya, leading to the path of wisdom (jñanamarga).

Later, profound meditation using the voice to pronounce the universal aum (see Sutras I.27 and 28) directs the self to abandon ego (ahamkara), and to feel virtuousness (silata), and so it becomes the path of devotion (bhakti marga).

Tapas is a burning desire for ascetic, devoted sadhana, through yama, niyama, Asana and pranayama. This cleanses the body and senses (karmendriya and jñanendriya), and frees one from afflictions (klesa nivrtti).

Svadhyaya means the study of the Vedas, spiritual scriptures that define the real and the unreal, or the study of one’s own self (from the body to the self). This study of spiritual science (atma sastra) ignites and inspires the student for self-progression. Thus svadhyaya is for restraining the fluctuations (mano vrtti nirodha) and in its wake comes tranquillity (samadhana citta) in the consciousness. Here the petals of yoga are pratyahara and dharana, besides the former aspects of tapas.

Isvara pranidhana is the surrender of oneself to God, and is the finest aspect of yoga sadhana. Patañjali explains God as a Supreme Soul, who is eternally free from afflictions, unaffected by actions and their reactions or by their residue. He advises one to think of God through repeating His name (japa), with profound thoughtfulness (arthabhavana), so that the seeker’s speech can become sanctified and thus the seed of imperfection (dosa bija) or defect be eradicated (dosa nivrtti) once and for all.

From here on, his sadhana continues uninterruptedly with devotion (anusthana). This practice, (sadhana-ana) will go on generating knowledge until he touches the towering wisdom (see Sutra II.28 in the sadhana pada).

Through the capsule of kriya yoga, Patañjali explains the cosmogony of nature and how to ultimately co-ordinate nature, in body, mind and speech. Through discipline tapas, study – svadhyaya, and devotion – Isvara pranidhana, the student can become free from nature’s erratic play, remaining in the abode of the Self.

In Sutra II.19 in the sadhana pada, Patañjali identifies the distinguishable, or physically manifest (visesa) marks and the non-distinguishable, or subtle, (avisesa) elements which comprise existence and which are transformed to take the individual to the noumenal (linga) state. Then through astanga yoga, coupled with sadhana-traya, all nature, or prakrti (alinga) becomes one, merged.

He defines the distinguishable marks of nature as the five elements: earth, water, fire, air and ether; (pañca-bhuta); the five organs of action (karmendriya); the five senses of perception (jñanendriya), and the mind (manas). The non-distinguishable marks are defined as the tanmatra (sound, touch, shape, taste and smell) and pride (ahamkara). These twenty-two principles have to merge in mahat (linga), and then dissolve in nature (prakrti). The first sixteen distinguishable marks are brought under control by tapas – practice and discipline, the six undistinguishable ones by svadhyaya – study and abhyasa – repetition. Nature, prakrti, and mahat,the Universal Consciousness, become one through and in Isvara pranidhana.

At this point all oscillations of the gunas that shape existence terminate and prakrtijaya, a mastery over nature, takes place. From this quiet silence of prakrti, Self (purusa) shines forth like the never fading sun.

In the Hathayoga Pradipika Svatmarama explains something very similar. He says that the body, being inert, tamasic, is uplifted to the level of the active, rajasic, mind through Asana and pranayama with yama and niyama. When the body is made as vibrant as the mind, through study, svadhyaya and through practice and repetitions, abhyasa, both mind and body are lifted towards the noumenal state of sattva guna. From sattva guna the sadhaka follows Isvara pranidhana to become a gunatitan (free from gunas).

Patañjali also addresses Svatmarama’s explanation of the different capabilities and therefore expectations for weak (mrdu), average (madhyama) and outstanding (adhimatra) students (see I.22). He guides the most basic beginner (the tamasic sadhaka) to follow yama, niyama, Asana, and pranayama as tapas, to become madhyadhikarins (vibrant and rajasic), and to intensify this practice into pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) and dharana (intense focus and concentration) as their path of study, svadhyaya, and then to proceed towards sattva guna through dhyana (devotion), and to gunatitan (the state uninfluenced by the gunas) into samadhi, the most profound state of meditiation – through Isvara pranidhana.

By this graded practice, according to the level of the sadhaka, all sadhakas have to touch the purusa (hrdayasparsi), sooner or later through tivra samvega sadhana (I.21).

Hence, kriya yoga sadhana-traya envelopes all the aspects of astanga yoga, each complimenting (puraka) and supplementing (posaka) the others. When sadhana becomes subtle and fine, then tapas, svadhyaya and Isvara pranidhana, work in unison with the eight-petals of astanga yoga, and the sadhanaka’s mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi) and ‘I’ ness or ‘mineness’ (ahamkara) are sublimated. Only then does he become a yogi. In him friendliness, compassion, gladness and oneness (samanata) flows benevolently in body, consciousness and speech to live in beatitude (divya ananda).

This is the way of the practice (sadhana), as explained by Patañjali that lifts even a raw sadhaka to reach ripeness in his sadhana and experience emancipation.

I am indebted to Thorsons for this special edition of Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, enabling readers to take a dip in sadhana and savour the nectar of immortality.

B.K.S. IYENGAR

14 December 2001

Patañjali

First I would like to tell you something about Patañjali, who he was and what was his lineage. Historically, Patañjali may have lived some time between 500 and 200 B.C., but much of what we know of the master of yoga is drawn from legends. He is referred to as a svayambhu, an evolved soul incarnated of his own will to help humanity. He assumed human form, experienced our sorrows and joys, and learned to transcend them. In the Yoga Sutras he described the ways of overcoming the afflictions of the body and the fluctuations of the mind: the obstacles to spiritual development.

Patañjali’s words are direct, original and traditionally held to be of divine provenance. After more than twenty centuries they remain fresh, fascinating and all-absorbing, and will remain so for centuries to come.

Patañjali’s 196 aphorisms or sutras cover all aspects of life, beginning with a prescribed code of conduct and ending with man’s vision of his true Self. Each word of the sutras is concise and precise. As individual drops of rain contribute towards the formation of a lake, so each word contained in the sutras conveys a wealth of thought and experience, and is indispensable to the whole.

Patañjali chose to write on three subjects, grammar, medicine and yoga. The Yoga Sutras, his culminating work, is his distillation of human knowledge. Like pearls on a thread, the Yoga Sutras form a precious necklace, a diadem of illuminative wisdom. To comprehend their message and put it into practice is to transform oneself into a highly cultured and civilized person, a rare and worthy human being.

Though I have practised and worked in the field of yoga for more than fifty years, I may have to practice for several more lifetimes to reach perfection in the subject. Therefore, the explanation of the most abstruse sutras lies yet beyond my power.

It is said that once Lord Visnu was seated on Adisesa, Lord of serpents, His couch, watching the enchanting dance of Lord siva. Lord Visnu was so totally absorbed in the dance movements of Lord siva that His body began to vibrate to their rhythm. This vibration made Him heavier and heavier, causing Adisesa to feel so uncomfortable that he was gasping for breath and was on the point of collapse. The moment the dance came to an end, Lord Visnu’s body became light again. Adisesa was amazed and asked his master the cause of these stupendous changes. The Lord explained that the grace, beauty, majesty and grandeur of Lord siva’s dance had created corresponding vibrations in His own body, making it heavy. Marvelling at this, Adisesa professed a desire to learn to dance so as to exalt his Lord. Visnu became thoughtful, and predicted that soon Lord siva would grace Adisesa to write a commentary on grammar, and that he would then also be able to devote himself to perfection in the art of dance. Adisesa was over-joyed by these words and looked forward to the descent of Lord siva’s grace.

Adisesa then began to meditate to ascertain who would be his mother on earth. In meditation, he had the vision of a yogini by the name of Gonika who was praying for a worthy son to whom she could impart her knowledge and wisdom. He at once realized that she would be a worthy mother for him, and awaited an auspicious moment to become her son.

Gonika, thinking that her earthly life was approaching its end, had not found a worthy son for whom she had been searching. Now, as a last resort, she looked to the Sun God, the living witness of God on earth and prayed to Him to fulfil her desire. She took a handful of water as a final oblation to Him, closed her eyes and meditated on the Sun. As she was about to offer the water, she opened her eyes and looked at her palms. To her surprise, she saw a tiny snake moving in her palms who soon took on a human form. This tiny male human being prostrated to Gonika and asked her to accept him as her son. This she did and named him Patañjali.

Pata means falling or fallen and añjali is an oblation. Añjali also means ‘hands folded in prayer’. Gonika’s prayer with folded hands thus bears the name Patañjali. Patañjali, the incarnation of Adisesa, Lord Visnu’s bearer, became not only the celebrated author of the Yoga Sutras but also of treatises on Ayurveda and grammar.

He undertook the work at Lord siva’s command. The Mahabhasya, his great grammar, a classical work for the cultivation of correct language, was followed by his book on Ayurveda, the science of life and health. His final work on yoga was directed towards man’s mental and spiritual evolution. All classical dancers in India pay their homage to Patañjali as a great dancer.

Together, Patañjali’s three works deal with man’s development as a whole, in thought, speech and action. His treatise on yoga is called yoga darsana. Darsana means ‘vision of the soul’ and also ‘mirror’. The effect of yoga is to reflect the thoughts and actions of the aspirant as in a mirror. The practitioner observes the reflections of his thoughts, mind, consciousness and actions, and corrects himself. This process guides him towards the observation of his inner self.

Patañjali’s works are followed by yogis to this day in their effort to develop a refined language, a cultured body and a civilized mind.

The Yoga Sutras

The book is divided into four chapters or padas (parts or quarters), covering the art, science and philosophy of life. The 196 sutras are succinct, precise, profound, and devout in approach. Each contains a wealth of ideas and wisdom to guide the aspirant (sadhaka) towards full knowledge of his own real nature. This knowledge leads to the experience of perfect freedom, beyond common understanding. Through ardent study of the sutras, and through devotion, the sadhaka is finally illumined by the lamp of exalted knowledge. Through practice, he radiates goodwill, friendliness and compassion. This knowledge, gained through subjective experience gives him boundless joy, harmony and peace.

As with the Bhagavad Gita, different schools of thought have interpreted the sutras in various ways, placing the emphasis on their particular path towards Self-Realization, whether on karma (action), jñana (wisdom) or bhakti (devotion). Each commentator bases his interpretations on certain key or focal themes and weaves around them his thoughts, feelings and experiences. My own interpretations are derived from a lifelong study of yoga, and from experiences gained from the practice of Asana, pranayama and dhyana. These are the key aspects of yoga which I use to interpret the sutras in the simplest and most direct way, without departing from traditional meanings given by successive teachers.

The four chapters or padas of the book are:

1 Samadhi pada (on contemplation)

2 Sadhana pada (on practice)

3 Vibhuti pada (on properties and powers)

4 Kaivalya pada (on emancipation and freedom)

The four padas correspond to the four varñas or divisions of labour; the four asramas or stages of life; the three guñas or qualities of nature and the fourth state beyond them (sattva, rajas, tamas and guatita) and the four purusarthas or aims of life. In the concluding sutra of the fourth pada, Patañjali speaks of the culmination of purusarthas and gunas as the highest goal of yoga sadhana. These concepts must have been wholly understood in Patañjali’s time, and therefore implicit in the earlier chapters, for him to speak of them explicitly only at the very end of the book.

The ultimate effect of following the path laid out by Patañjali is to experience the effortless, indivisible state of the seer.

The first pada amounts to a treatise on dharmasastra, the science of religious duty. Dharma is that which upholds, sustains, and supports one who has fallen or is falling, or is about to fall in the sphere of ethics, physical or mental practices, or spiritual discipline. It appears to me that Patañjali’s whole concept of yoga is based on dharma, the law handed down in perpetuity through Vedic tradition. The goal of the law of dharma is emancipation.

If dharma is the seed of yoga, kaivalya (emancipation) is its fruit. This explains the concluding sutra, which describes kaivalya as the state which is motiveless and devoid of all worldly aims and qualities of nature. In kaivalya, the yogi shines in his own intelligence which sprouts from the seer, atman, independent of the organs of action, senses of perception, mind, intelligence and consciousness. Yoga is, in fact, the path to kaivalya.

Dharma, the orderly science of duty is part of the eightfold path of yoga (astanga yoga), which Patañjali describes in detail. When the eight disciplines are followed with dedication and devotion, they help the sadhaka to become physically, mentally and emotionally stable so that he can maintain equanimity in all circumstances. He learns to know the Supreme Soul, Brahman, and to live in speech, thought and action in accordance with the highest truth.

Samadhi Pada

The first chapter, samadhi pada, defines yoga and the movement of the consciousness, citta vrtti. It is directed towards those who are already highly evolved to enable them to maintain their advanced state of cultured, matured intelligence and wisdom. Rare indeed are such human souls who experience samadhi early in life, for samadhi is the last stage of the eightfold path of yoga. Samadhi is seeing the soul face to face, an absolute, indivisible state of existence, in which all differences between body, mind and soul are dissolved. Such sages as Hanuman, suka, Dhruva, Prahlada, sankaracarya, Jñanesvar, Kabir, Svami Ramdas of Maharastra, Ramakrsna Paramahamsa and Ramata Maharsi, evolved straight to Kaivalya without experiencing the intermediate stages of life or the various stages of yoga. All the actions of these great seers arose from their souls, and they dwelled throughout their lives in a state of unalloyed bliss and purity.

The word samadhi is made up of two components. Sama means level, alike, straight, upright, impartial, just, good and virtuous; and adhi means over and above, i.e. the indestructible seer. Samadhi is the tracing of the source of consciousness – the seer – and then diffusing its essence, impartially and evenly, throughout every particle of the intelligence, mind, senses and body.

We may suppose that Patañjali’s intention, in beginning with an exegesis of samadhi, was to attract those rare souls who were already on the brink of Self-Realization, and to guide them into experiencing the state of nonduality itself. For the uninitiated majority, the enticing prospect of samadhi, revealed so early in his work, serves as a lamp to draw us into yogic discipline, which will refine us to the point where our own soul becomes manifest.

Patañjali describes the fluctuations, modifications and modulations of thought which disturb the consciousness, and then sets out the various disciplines by which they may be stilled. This has resulted in yoga being called a mental sadhana (practice). Such a sadhana is possible only if the accumulated fruits derived from the good actions of past lives (samskaras) are of a noble order. Our samskaras are the fund of our past perceptions, instincts and subliminal or hidden impressions. If they are good, they act as stimuli to maintain the high degree of sensitivity necessary to pursue the spiritual path.

Consciousness is imbued with the three qualities (gunas) of luminosity (sattva), vibrancy (rajas) and inertia (tamas). The gunas also colour our actions: white (sattva), grey (rajas) and black (tamas). Through the discipline of yoga, both actions and intelligence go beyond these qualities and the seer comes to experience his own soul with crystal clarity, free from the relative attributes of nature and actions. This state of purity is samadhi. Yoga is thus both the means and the goal. Yoga is samadhi and samadhi is yoga.

There are two main types of samadhi. Sabija or samprajñata samadhi is attained by deliberate effort, using for concentration an object or idea as a ‘seed’. Nirbija samadhi is without seed or support.

Patañjali explains that before samadhi is experienced the functioning of consciousness depends upon five factors: correct perception, misperception (where the senses mislead), misconception or ambiguousness (where the mind lets one down), sleep, and memory. The soul is pure, but through the sullying or misalignment of consciousness it gets caught up in the spokes of joys and sorrows and becomes part of suffering, like a spider ensnared in its own web. These joys and sorrows may be painful or painless, cognizable or incognizable.

Freedom, that is to say direct experience of samadhi, can be attained only by disciplined conduct and renunciation of sensual desires and appetites. This is brought about through adherence to the ‘twin pillars’ of yoga, abhyasa and vairagya.

Abhyasa (practice) is the art of learning that which has to be learned through the cultivation of disciplined action. This involves long, zealous, calm, and persevering effort. Vairagya (detachment or renunciation) is the art of avoiding that which should be avoided. Both require a positive and virtuous approach.

Practice is a generative force of transformation or progress in yoga, but if undertaken alone it produces an unbridled energy which is thrown outwards to the material world as if by centrifugal force. Renunciation acts to shear off this energetic outburst, protecting the practitioner from entanglement with sense objects and redirecting the energies centripetally towards the core of being.

Patañjali teaches the sadhaka to cultivate friendliness and compassion, to delight in the happiness of others and to remain indifferent to vice and virtue so that he may maintain his poise and tranquillity. He advises the sadhaka to follow the ethical disciplines of yama and niyama, the ten precepts similar to the Ten Commandments, which govern behaviour and practice and form the foundation of spiritual evolution. He then offers several methods through which consciousness detaches itself from intellectual and emotional upheavals and assumes the form of the soul – universal, devoid of all personal and material identity. The sadhaka is now filled with serenity, insight and truth. The soul, which until now remained unmanifest, becomes visible to the seeker. The seeker becomes the seer: he enters a state without seed or support, nirbija samadhi.

Sadhana Pada

In the second chapter, sadhana pada, Patañjali comes down to the level of the spiritually unevolved to help them, too, to aspire to absolute freedom. Here he coins the word kriyayoga. Kriya means action, and kriyayoga emphasizes the dynamic effort to be made by the sadhaka. It is composed of eight yogic disciplines, yama and niyama, Asana and pranayama, pratyahara and dharana, dhyana and samadhi. These are compressed into three tiers. The tier formed by the first two pairs, yama and niyama, Asana and pranayama, comes under tapas (religious spirit in practice). The second tier, pratyahara and dharana, is self-study (svadhyaya). The third, dhyana and samadhi, is Isvara pranidhana, the surrender of the individual self to the Universal Spirit, or God (Isvara).

In this way, Patañjali covers the three great paths of Indian philosophy in the Yoga Sutras. Karmamarga, the path of action is contained in tapas; jñanamarga, the path of knowledge, in svadhyaya; and bhaktimarga, the path of surrender to God, in Isvara pranidhana.

In this chapter, Patañjali identifies avidya, spiritual ignorance, as the source of all sorrow and unhappiness. Avidya is the first of the five klesas, or afflictions, and is the root of all the others: egoism, attachment, aversion and clinging to life. From these arise desires, sowing the seeds of sorrow.

Afflictions are of three types. They may be self-inflicted, hereditary, or caused through imbalance of elements in the body. All are consequences of one’s actions, in this or previous lifetimes, and are to be overcome through practice and renunciation in the eight yogic disciplines which cover purification of the body, senses and mind, an intense discipline whereby the seeds are incinerated, impurities vanish, and the seeker reaches a state of serenity in which he merges with the seer.

For one who lacks ethical discipline and perfect physical health, there can be no spiritual illumination. Body, mind and spirit are inseparable: if the body is asleep, the soul is asleep.

The seeker is taught to perform Asanas so that he becomes familiar with his body, senses and intelligence. He develops alertness, sensitivity, and the power of concentration. pranayama gives control over the subtle qualities of the elements – sound, touch, shape, taste and smell. Pratyahara is the withdrawal into the mind of the organs of action and senses of perception.

Sadhana pada ends here, but Patañjali extends dharana, dhyana and samadhi, the subtle aspects of sadhana, into the next chapter, vibhuti pada. These three withdraw the mind into the consciousness, and the consciousness into the soul.

The journey from yama to pratyahara, described in sadhana pada, ends in the sea of tranquillity, which has no ripples. If citta is the sea, its movements (vrttis) are the ripples. Body, mind and consciousness are in communion with the soul; they are now free from attachments and aversions, memories of place and time. The impurities of body and mind are cleansed, the dawning light of wisdom vanquishes ignorance, innocence replaces arrogance and pride, and the seeker becomes the seer.

Vibhuti Pada

The third chapter speaks of the divine effects of yoga sadhana. It is said that the sadhaka who in this state has full knowledge of past, present and future, as well as of the solar system. He understands the minds of others. He acquires the eight supernatural powers or siddhis: the ability to become small and large, light and heavy, to acquire, to attain every wish, to gain supremacy and sovereignty over things.

These achievements are dangerous. The sadhaka is cautioned to ignore their temptations and pursue the spiritual path.

Sage Vyasa’s commentary on the sutras gives examples of those who became ensnared by these powers and those who remained free. Nahusa, who belonged to the mortal world, became the Lord of heaven, but misused his power, fell from grace and was sent back to earth in the form of a snake. Urvasi, a famous mythical nymph, the daughter of Nara Narayana (the son of Dharma and grandson of Brahma), became a creeping plant. Ahalya, who succumbed to sensual temptation, was cursed by Gautama and became a stone. On the other hand, Nandi, the bull, reached Lord siva. Matsya, the fish, became Matsyendranath, the greatest hatha yogi on earth.

If the sadhaka succumbs to the lure of the siddhis, he will be like a person running away from a gale only to be caught in a whirlwind. If he resists, and perseveres on the spiritual path, he will experience kaivalya, the indivisible, unqualified, undifferentiated state of existence.

Kaivalya Pada

In the fourth chapter, Patañjali distinguishes kaivalya from samadhi. In samadhi, the sadhaka experiences a passive state of oneness between seer and seen, observer and observed, subject and object. In kaivalya, he lives in a positive state of life, above the tamasic, rajasic and sattvic influences of the three gunas of nature. He moves in the world and does day-to-day work dispassionately, without becoming involved in it.

Patañjali says it is possible to experience kaivalya by birth, through use of drugs, by repetition of mantra, or by tapas (intense, disciplined effort) and through samadhi. Of these, only the last two develop mature intelligence and lead to stable growth.

Man may make or mar his progress through good actions or bad. Yogic practices lead to a spiritual life; non-yogic actions bind one to the world. The ego, ahamkara, is the root cause of good and bad actions. Yoga removes the weed of pride from the mind and helps the seeker to trace the source of all actions, the consciousness, wherein all past impressions (samskaras) are stored. When this ultimate source is traced through yogic practices, the sadhaka is at once freed from the reactions of his actions. Desires leave him. Desire, action and reaction are spokes in the wheel of thought, but when consciousness has become steady and pure, they are eliminated. Movements of mind come to an end. He becomes a perfect yogi with skilful actions. As wick, oil and flame combine to give light, so thought, speech and action unite, and the yogi’s knowledge becomes total. For others, whose knowledge and understanding are limited, an object may be one thing, experience of the object another, and the word quite different from both. These vacillations of mind cripple one’s capacity for thought and action.

The yogi differentiates between the wavering uncertainties of thought processes and the understanding of the Self, which is changeless. He does his work in the world as a witness, uninvolved and uninfluenced. His mind reflects its own form, undistorted, like a crystal. At this point, all speculation and deliberation come to an end and liberation is experienced. The yogi lives in the experience of wisdom, untinged by the emotions of desire, anger, greed, infatuation, pride, and malice. This seasoned wisdom is truth-bearing (rtambhara prajña). It leads the sadhaka towards virtuous awareness, dharma megha samadhi, which brings him a cascade of knowledge and wisdom. He is immersed in kaivalya, the constant burning light of the soul, illuminating the divinity not only in himself, but also in those who come in contact with him.

I end this prologue with a quotation from the Visnu Purana given by sri Vyasa in his commentary on the Yoga Sutras: ‘Yoga is the teacher of yoga; yoga is to be understood through yoga. So live in yoga to realize yoga; comprehend yoga through yoga; he who is free from distractions enjoys yoga through yoga.’

Themes in the Four Padas

I: Samadhi Pada

Patañjali’s opening words are on the need for a disciplined code of conduct to educate us towards spiritual poise and peace under all circumstances.

He defines yoga as the restraint of citta, which means consciousness. The term citta should not be understood to mean only the mind. Citta has three components: mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara) which combine into one composite whole. The term ‘self’ represents a person as an individual entity. Its identity is separate from mind, intelligence and ego, depending upon the development of the individual.

Self also stands for the subject, as contrasted with the object, of experience. It is that out of which the primeval thought of ‘I’ arises, and into which it dissolves. Self has a shape or form as ‘I’, and is infused with the illuminative, or sattvic, quality of nature (prakrti). In the temples of India, we see a base idol, an idol of stone that is permanently fixed. This represents the soul (atman). There is also a bronze idol, which is considered to be the icon of the base idol, and is taken out of the temple in procession as its representative, the individual self. The bronze idol represents the self or the individual entity, while the base idol represents the universality of the Soul.

Eastern thought takes one through the layers of being, outwards from the core, the soul, towards the periphery, the body; and inwards from the periphery towards the core. The purpose of this exploration is to discover, experience and taste the nectar of the soul. The process begins with external awareness: what we experience through the organs of action or karmendriyas (the arms, legs, mouth, and the organs of generation and excretion) and proceeds through the senses of perception or jñanendriyas (the ears, eyes, nose, tongue and skin). That awareness begins to penetrate the mind, the intelligence, the ego, the consciousness, and the individual self (asmita), until it reaches the soul (atma). These sheaths may also be penetrated in the reverse order.

Asmita’s existence at an empirical level has no absolute moral value, as it is in an unsullied state. It takes its colour from the level of development of the individual practitioner (sadhaka). Thus, ‘I-consciousness’ in its grossest form may manifest as pride or egoism, but in its subtlest form, it is the innermost layer of being, nearest to the atman. Ahamkara, or ego, likewise has changing qualities, depending on whether it is rajasic, tamasic or sattvic. Sattvic ahamkara usually indicates an evolved asmita.

The chameleon nature of asmita is apparent when we set ourselves a challenge. The source of the challenge lies in the positive side of asmita, but the moment fear arises negatively, it inhibits our initiative. We must then issue a counter-challenge to disarm that fear. From this conflict springs creation.

Asana, for example, offers a controlled battleground for the process of conflict and creation. The aim is to recreate the process of human evolution in our own internal environment. We thereby have the opportunity to observe and comprehend our own evolution to the point at which conflict is resolved and there is only oneness, as when the river meets the sea. This creative struggle is experienced in the headstand: as we challenge ourselves to improve the position, fear of falling acts to inhibit us. If we are rash, we fall, if timorous, we make no progress. But if the interplay of the two forces is observed, analysed and controlled, we can achieve perfection. At that moment, the asmita which proposed and the asmita which opposed become one in the Asana and assume a perfect form. Asmita dissolves in bliss, or satcitananda (purity-consciousness-bliss).

Ahamkara, or ego, the sense of ‘I’, is the knot that binds the consciousness and the body through the inner sense, the mind. In this way, the levels of being are connected by the mind, from the soul, through the internal parts, to the external senses. The mind thus acts as a link between the objects seen, and the subject, the seer. It is the unifying factor between the soul and the body which helps us to uncover layer after layer of our being until the sheath of the self (jivatman) is reached.

These layers, or sheaths, are the anatomical, skeletal, or structural sheath (annamaya kosa); the physiological or organic sheath (pranamaya kosa); the mental or emotional sheath (manomaya kosa); the intellectual or discriminative sheath (vijñanamaya kosa); and the pure blissful sheath (anandamaya kosa). These kosas represent the five elements of nature, or prakrti: earth, water, fire, air and ether. Mahat, cosmic consciousness, in its individual form as citta, is the sixth kosa, while the inner soul is the seventh kosa. In all, man has seven sheaths, or kosas, for the development of awareness.

The blissful spiritual sheath is called the causal body (karana sarira), while the physiological, intellectual and mental sheaths form the subtle body (suksma sarira), and the anatomical sheath the gross body (karya sarira). The yoga aspirant tries to understand the functions of all these sheaths of the soul as well as the soul itself, and thereby begins his quest to experience the divine core of being: the atman.

The mind permeates and engulfs the entire conscious and unconscious mental process, and the activities of the brain. All vital activities arise in the mind. According to Indian thought, though mind, intelligence and ego are parts of consciousness, mind acts as the outer cover of intelligence and ego and is considered to be the eleventh sense organ. Mind is as elusive as mercury. It senses, desires, wills, remembers, perceives, recollects and experiences emotional sensations such as pain and pleasure, heat and cold, honour and dishonour. Mind is inhibitive as well as exhibitive. When inhibitive, it draws nearer to the core of being. When exhibitive, it manifests itself as brain in order to see and perceive the external objects with which it then identifies.

It should be understood that the brain is a part of the mind. As such, it functions as the mind’s instrument of action. The brain is part of the organic structure of the central nervous system that is enclosed in the cranium. It makes mental activity possible. It controls and co-ordinates mental and physical activities. When the brain is trained to be consciously quiet, the cognitive faculty comes into its own, making possible, through the intelligence, apprehension of the mind’s various facets. Clarity of intelligence lifts the veil of obscurity and encourages quiet receptivity in the ego as well as in the consciousness, diffusing their energies evenly throughout the physical, physiological, mental, intellectual and spiritual sheaths of the soul.

What is soul?

God, Paramatman or Purusa Visesan, is known as the Universal Soul, the seed of all (see 1.24). The individual soul, jivatman or purusa, is the seed of the individual self. The soul is therefore distinct from the self. Soul is formless, while self assumes a form. The soul is an entity, separate from the body and free from the self. Soul is the very essence of the core of one’s being.

Like mind, the soul has no actual location in the body. It is latent, and exists everywhere. The moment the soul is brought to awareness of itself, it is felt anywhere and everywhere. Unlike the self, the soul is free from the influence of nature, and is thus universal. The self is the seed of all functions and actions, and the source of spiritual evolution through knowledge. It can also, through worldly desires, be the seed of spiritual destruction. The soul perceives spiritual reality, and is known as the seer (drsta).

As a well-nurtured seed causes a tree to grow, and to blossom with flowers and fruits, so the soul is the seed of man’s evolution. From this source, asmita sprouts as the individual self. From this sprout springs consciousness, citta. From consciousness, spring ego, intelligence, mind, and the senses of perception and organs of action. Though the soul is free from influence, its sheaths come in contact with the objects of the world, which leave imprints on them through the intelligence of the brain and the mind. The discriminative faculty of brain and mind screens these imprints, discarding or retaining them. If discriminative power is lacking, then these imprints, like quivering leaves, create fluctuations in words, thoughts and deeds, and restlessness in the self.

These endless cycles of fluctuation are known as vrttis: changes, movements, functions, operations, or conditions of action or conduct in the consciousness. Vrttis are thought-waves, part of the brain, mind and consciousness as waves are part of the sea.

Thought is a mental vibration based on past experiences. It is a product of inner mental activity, a process of thinking. This process consciously applies the intellect to analyse thoughts arising from the seat of the mental body through the remembrance of past experiences. Thoughts create disturbances. By analysing them one develops discriminative power, and gains serenity.

When consciousness is in a serene state, its interior components, intelligence, ego, mind and the feeling of ‘I’, also experience tranquillity. At that point, there is no room for thought-waves to arise either in the mind or in the consciousness. Stillness and silence are experienced, poise and peace set in and one becomes cultured. One’s thoughts, words and deeds develop purity, and begin to flow in a divine stream.

Study of consciousness

Before describing the principles of yoga, Patañjali speaks of consciousness and the restraint of its movements.

The verb cit means to perceive, to notice, to know, to understand, to long for, to desire and to remind. As a noun, cit means thought, emotion, intellect, feeling, disposition, vision, heart, soul, Brahman. Cinta means disturbed or anxious thoughts, and cintana means deliberate thinking. Both are facets of citta. As they must be restrained through the discipline of yoga, yoga is defined as citta vrtti nirodhah. A perfectly subdued and pure citta is divine and at one with the soul.

Citta is the individual counterpart of mahat, the universal consciousness. It is the seat of the intelligence that sprouts from conscience, antahkarana, the organ of virtue and religious knowledge. If the soul is the seed of conscience, conscience is the source of consciousness, intelligence and mind. The thinking processes of consciousness embody mind, intelligence and ego. The mind has the power to imagine, think, attend to, aim, feel and will. The mind’s continual swaying affects its inner sheaths, intelligence, ego, consciousness and the self.

Mind is mercurial by nature, elusive and hard to grasp. However, it is the one organ which reflects both the external and internal worlds. Though it has the faculty of seeing things within and without, its more natural tendency is to involve itself with objects of the visible, rather than the inner world.

In collaboration with the senses, mind perceives things for the individual to see, observe, feel and experience. These experiences may be painful, painless or pleasurable. Through their influence, impulsiveness and other tendencies or moods creep into the mind, making it a storehouse of imprints (samskaras) and desires (vAsanas), which create excitement and emotional impressions. If these are favourable they create good imprints; if unfavourable they cause repugnance. These imprints generate the fluctuations, modifications and modulations of consciousness. If the mind is not disciplined and purified, it becomes involved with the objects experienced, creating sorrow and unhappiness.

Patañjali begins the treatise on yoga by explaining the functioning of the mind, so that we may learn to discipline it, and intelligence, ego and consciousness may be restrained, subdued and diffused, then drawn towards the core of our being and absorbed in the soul. This is yoga.

Patañjali explains that painful and painless imprints are gathered by five means: pramana, or direct perception, which is knowledge that arises from correct thought or right conception and is perpetual and true; viparyaya, or misperception and misconception, leading to contrary knowledge; vikalpa, or imagination or fancy; nidra or sleep; and smrti or memory. These are the fields in which the mind operates, and through which experience is gathered and stored.

Direct perception is derived from one’s own experience, through inference, or from the perusal of sacred books or the words of authoritative masters. To be true and distinct, it should be real and self-evident. Its correctness should be verified by reasoned doubt, logic and reflection. Finally, it should be found to correspond to spiritual doctrines and precepts and sacred, revealed truth.

Contrary knowledge leads to false conceptions. Imagination remains at verbal or visual levels and may consist of ideas without a factual basis. When ideas are proved as facts, they become real perception.

Sleep is a state of inactivity in which the organs of action, senses of perception, mind and intelligence remain inactive. Memory is the faculty of retaining and reviving past impressions and experiences of correct perception, misperception, misconception and even of sleep.

These five means by which imprints are gathered shape moods and modes of behaviour, making or marring the individual’s intellectual, cultural and spiritual evolution.

Culture of consciousness

The culture of consciousness entails cultivation, observation, and progressive refinement of consciousness by means of yogic disciplines. After explaining the causes of fluctuations in consciousness, Patañjali shows how to overcome them, by means of practice, abhyasa, and detachment or renunciation, vairagya.

If the student is perplexed to find detachment and renunciation linked to practice so early in the Yoga Sutras, let him consider their symbolic relationship in this way. The text begins with atha yoganusAsanam. AnusAsanam stands for the practice of a disciplined code of yogic conduct, the observance of instructions for ethical action handed down by lineage and tradition. Ethical principles, translated from methodology into deeds, constitute practice. Now, read the word ‘renunciation’ in the context of sutra I.4: ‘At other times, the seer identifies with the fluctuating consciousness.’ Clearly, the fluctuating mind lures the seer outwards towards pastures of pleasure and valleys of pain, where enticement inevitably gives rise to attachment. When mind starts to drag the seer, as if by a stout rope, from the seat of being towards the gratification of appetite, only renunciation can intervene and save the sadhaka by cutting the rope. So we see, from sutras I.1 and I.4, the interdependence from the very beginning of practice and renunciation, without which practice will not bear fruit.

Abhyasa is a dedicated, unswerving, constant, and vigilant search into a chosen subject, pursued against all odds in the face of repeated failures, for indefinitely long periods of time. Vairagya is the cultivation of freedom from passion, abstention from worldly desires and appetites, and discrimination between the real and the unreal. It is the act of giving up all sensuous delights. Abhyasa builds confidence and refinement in the process of culturing the consciousness, whereas vairagya is the elimination of whatever hinders progress and refinement. Proficiency in vairagya develops the ability to free oneself from the fruits of action.

Patañjali speaks of attachment, non-attachment, and detachment. Detachment may be likened to the attitude of a doctor towards his patient. He treats the patient with the greatest care, skill and sense of responsibility, but does not become emotionally involved with him so as not to lose his faculty of reasoning and professional judgement.

A bird cannot fly with one wing. In the same way, we need the two wings of practice and renunciation to soar up to the zenith of Soul realization.

Practice implies a certain methodology, involving effort. It has to be followed uninterruptedly for a long time, with firm resolve, application, attention and devotion, to create a stable foundation for training the mind, intelligence, ego and consciousness.

Renunciation is discriminative discernment. It is the art of learning to be free from craving, both for worldly pleasures and for heavenly eminence. It involves training the mind and consciousness to be unmoved by desire and passion. One must learn to renounce objects and ideas which disturb and hinder one’s daily yogic practices. Then one has to cultivate non-attachment to the fruits of one’s labours.

If abhyasa and vairagya are assiduously observed, restraint of the mind becomes possible much more quickly. Then, one may explore what is beyond the mind, and taste the nectar of immortality, or Soul-realization. Temptations neither daunt nor haunt one who has this intensity of heart in practice and renunciation. If practice is slowed down, then the search for Soul-realization becomes clogged and bound in the wheel of time.

Why practice and renunciation are essential

Avidya (ignorance) is the mother of vacillation and affliction. Patañjali explains how one may gain knowledge by direct and correct perception, inference and testimony, and that correct understanding comes when trial and error ends. Here, both practice and renunciation play an important role in gaining spiritual knowledge.

Attachment is a relationship between man and matter, and may be inherited or acquired.

Non-attachment is the deliberate process of drawing away from attachment and personal affliction, in which, neither binding oneself to duty nor cutting oneself off from it, one gladly helps all, near or far, friend or foe. Non-attachment does not mean drawing inwards and shutting oneself off, but involves carrying out one’s responsibilities without incurring obligation or inviting expectation. It is between attachment and detachment, a step towards detachment, and the sadhaka needs to cultivate it before thinking of renunciation.

Detachment brings discernment: seeing each and every thing or being as it is, in its purity, without bias or self-interest. It is a means to understand nature and its potencies. Once nature’s purposes are grasped, one must learn to detach onself from them to achieve an absolute independent state of existence wherein the soul radiates its own light.

Mind, intelligence and ego, revolving in the wheel of desire (kama), anger (krodha), greed (lobha), infatuation (moha), pride (mada) and malice (matsarya), tie the sadhaka to their imprints; he finds it exceedingly difficult to come out of the turmoil and to differentiate between the mind and the soul. Practice of yoga and renunciation of sensual desires take one towards spiritual attainment.

Practice demands four qualities from the aspirant: dedication, zeal, uninterrupted awareness and long duration. Renunciation also demands four qualities: disengaging the senses from action, avoiding desire, stilling the mind and freeing oneself from cravings.

Practitioners are also of four levels, mild, medium, keen and intense. They are categorized into four stages: beginners; those who understand the inner functions of the body; those who can connect the intelligence to all parts of the body; and those whose body, mind and soul have become one. (See table 1.)

Effects of practice and renunciation

Intensity of practice and renunciation transforms the uncultured, scattered consciousness, citta, into a cultured consciousness, able to focus on the four states of awareness. The seeker develops philosophical curiosity, begins to analyse with sensitivity, and learns to grasp the ideas and purposes of material objects in the right perspective (vitarka). Then he meditates on them to know and understand fully the subtle aspects of matter (vicara). Thereafter he moves on to experience spiritual elation or the pure bliss (ananda) of meditation, and finally sights the Self. These four types of awareness are collectively termed samprajñata samadhi or samprajñata samapatti. Samapatti is thought transformation or contemplation, the act of coming face to face with oneself.

From these four states of awareness, the seeker moves to a new state, an alert but passive state of quietness known as manolaya. Patañjali cautions the sadhaka not to be caught in this state, which is a crossroads on the spiritual path, but to intensify his sadhana to experience a still higher state known as nirbija samadhi or dharma megha samadhi. The sadhaka may not know which road to follow beyond manolaya, and could be stuck there forever, in a spiritual desert. In this quiet state of void, the hidden tendencies remain inactive but latent. They surface and become active the moment the alert passive state disappears. This state should therefore not be mistaken for the highest goal in yoga.

This resting state is a great achievement in the path of evolution, but it remains a state of suspension in the spiritual field. One loses body consciousness and is undisturbed by nature, which signifies conquest of matter. If the seeker is prudent, he realizes that this is not the aim and end, but only the beginning of success in yoga. Accordingly, he further intensifies his effort (upaya pratyaya) with faith and vigour, and uses his previous experience as a guide to proceed from the state of void or loneliness, towards the non-valid state of aloneness or fullness, where freedom is absolute.

Table 1: Levels of sadhaka, levels of sadhana and stages of evolution

If the sadhaka’s intensity of practice is great, the goal is closer. If he slackens his efforts, the goal recedes in proportion to his lack of willpower and intensity.

Universal Soul or God (Isvara, Purusa Visesan or Paramatman)

There are many ways to begin the practice of yoga. First and foremost, Patañjali outlines the method of surrender of oneself to God (Isvara). This involves detachment from the world and attachment to God, and is possible only for those few who are born as adepts. Patañjali defines God as the Supreme Being, totally free from afflictions and the fruits of action. In Him abides the matchless seed of all knowledge. He is First and Foremost amongst all masters and teachers, unconditioned by time, place and circumstances.

His symbol is the syllable AUM. This sound is divine: it stands in praise of divine fulfilment. AUM is the universal sound (sabda brahman). Philosophically, it is regarded as the seed of all words. No word can be uttered without the symbolic sound of these three letters, a, u and m. The sound begins with the letter a, causing the mouth to open. So the beginning is a. To speak, it is necessary to roll the tongue and move the lips. This is symbolized by the letter u. The ending of the sound is the closing of the lips, symbolized by the letter m..AUM represents communion with God, the Soul and with the Universe.

AUM is known as pranava, or exalted praise of God. God is worshipped by repeating or chanting AUM, because sound vibration is the subtlest and highest expression of nature. Mahat belongs to this level. Even our innermost unspoken thoughts create waves of sound vibration, so AUM represents the elemental movement of sound, which is the foremost form of energy. AUM is therefore held to be the primordial way of worshipping God. At this exalted level of phenomenal evolution, fragmentation has not yet taken place. AUM offers complete praise, neither partial nor divided: none can be higher. Such prayer begets purity of mind in the sadhaka, and helps him to reach the goal of yoga. AUM, repeated with feeling and awareness of its meaning, overcomes obstacles to Self-Realization.

The obstacles

The obstacles to healthy life and Self-Realization are disease, indolence of body or mind, doubt or scepticism, carelessness, laziness, failing to avoid desires and their gratification, delusion and missing the point, not being able to concentrate on what is undertaken and to gain ground, and inability to maintain concentration and steadiness in practice once attained. They are further aggravated through sorrows, anxiety or frustration, unsteadiness of the body, and laboured or irregular breathing.

Ways of surmounting the obstacles and reaching the goal

The remedies which minimize or eradicate these obstacles are: adherence to single-minded effort in sadhana, friendliness and goodwill towards all creation, compassion, joy, indifference and non-attachment to both pleasure and pain, virtue and vice. These diffuse the mind evenly within and without and make it serene.

Patañjali also suggests the following methods to be adopted by various types of practitioners to diminish the fluctuations of the mind.

Retaining the breath after each exhalation (the study of inhalation teaches how the self gradually becomes attached to the body; the study of exhalation teaches non-attachment as the self recedes from the contact of the body; retention after exhalation educates one towards detachment); involving oneself in an interesting topic or object contemplating a luminous, effulgent and sorrowless light; treading the path followed by noble personalities; studying the nature of wakefulness, dream and sleep states, and maintaining a single state of awareness in all three; meditating on an object which is all-absorbing and conducive to a serene state of mind.

Effects of practice

Any of these methods can be practised on its own. If all are practised together, the mind will diffuse evenly throughout the body, its abode, like the wind which moves and spreads in space. When they are judiciously, meticulously and religiously practised, passions are controlled and single-mindedness develops. The sadhaka becomes highly sensitive, as flawless and transparent as crystal. He realizes that the seer, the seeker and the instrument used to see or seek are nothing but himself, and he resolves all divisions within himself.

This clarity brings about harmony between his words and their meanings, and a new light of wisdom dawns. His memory of experiences steadies his mind, and this leads both memory and mind to dissolve in the cosmic intelligence.

This is one type of samadhi, known as sabija samadhi, with seed, or support. From this state, the sadhaka intensifies his sadhana to gain unalloyed wisdom, bliss and poise. This unalloyed wisdom is independent of anything heard, read or learned. The sadhaka does not allow himself to be halted in his progress, but seeks to experience a further state of being: the amanaskatva state.

If manolaya is a passive, almost negative, quiet state, amanaskatva is a positive, active state directly concerned with the inner being, without the influence of the mind. In this state, the sadhaka is perfectly detached from external things. Complete renunciation has taken place, and he lives in harmony with his inner being, allowing the seer to shine brilliantly in his own pristine glory.

This is true samadhi: seedless or nirbija samadhi.

II: Sadhana Pada

Why did Patañjali begin the Yoga Sutras with a discussion of so advanced a subject as the subtle aspect of consciousness? We may surmise that intellectual standards and spiritual knowledge were then of a higher and more refined level than they are now, and that the inner quest was more accessible to his contemporaries than it is to us.

Today, the inner quest and the spiritual heights are difficult to attain through following Patañjali’s earlier expositions. We turn, therefore, to this chapter, in which he introduces kriyayoga, the yoga of action. Kriyayoga gives us the practical disciplines needed to scale the spiritual heights.

My own feeling is that the four padas of the Yoga Sutras describe different disciplines of practice, the qualities or aspects of which vary according to the development of intelligence and refinement of consciousness of each Sadhaka.

Sadhana is a discipline undertaken in the pursuit of a goal. Abhyasa is repeated practice performed with observation and reflection. Kriya, or action, also implies perfect execution with study and investigation. Therefore, sadhana, abhyasa, and kriya all mean one and the same thing. A sadhaka, or practitioner, is one who skilfully applies his mind and intelligence in practice towards a spiritual goal.

Whether out of compassion for the more intellectually backward people of his time, or else foreseeing the spiritual limitations of our time, Patañjali offers in this chapter a method of practice which begins with the organs of action and the senses of perception. Here, he gives those of average intellect the practical means to strive for knowledge, and to gather hope and confidence to begin yoga: the quest for Self-Realization. This chapter involves the sadhaka in the art of refining the body and senses, the visible layers of the soul, working inwards from the gross towards the subtle level.

Although Patañjali is held to have been a self-incarnated, immortal being, he must have voluntarily descended to the human level, submitted himself to the joys and sufferings, attachments and aversions, emotional imbalances and intellectual weaknesses of average individuals, and studied human nature from its nadir to its zenith. He guides us from our shortcomings towards emancipation through the devoted practice of yoga. This chapter, which may be happily followed for spiritual benefit by anyone, is his gift to humanity.

Kriyayoga, the yoga of action, has three tiers: tapas, svadhyaya and Isvara pranidhana. Tapas means burning desire to practise yoga and intense effort applied to practice. Svadhyaya has two aspects: the study of scriptures to gain sacred wisdom and knowledge of moral and spiritual values; and the study of one’s own self, from the body to the inner self. Isvara pranidhana is faith in God and surrender to God. This act of surrender teaches humility. When these three aspects of kriyayoga are followed with zeal and earnestness, life’s sufferings are overcome, and samadhi is experienced.

Sufferings or afflictions (Klesas)

Klesas (sufferings or afflictions) have five causes: ignorance, or lack of wisdom and understanding (avidya), pride or egoism (asmita), attachment (raga), aversion (dvesa), and fear of death and clinging to life (abhinivessa). The first two are intellectual defects, the next two emotional, and the last instinctual. They may be hidden, latent, attenuated or highly active.

Avidya, ignorance, or lack of wisdom, is a fertile ground in which afflications can grow, making one’s life a hell. Mistaking the transient for the eternal, the impure for the pure, pain for pleasure, and the pleasures of the world for the bliss of the spirit constitutes avidya.

Identifying the individual ego (the ‘I’) with the real soul is asmita. It is the false identification of the ego with the seer.

Encouraging and gratifying desires is raga. When desires are not gratified, frustration and sorrow give rise to alienation or hate. This is dvesa, aversion.

The desire to live forever and to preserve one’s individual self is abhinivesa. Freedom from such attachment to life is very difficult for even a wise, erudite and scholarly person to achieve. If avidya is the mother of afflictions, abhinivesa is its offspring.

All our past actions exert their influence and mould our present and future lives: as you sow, so shall you reap. This is the law of karma, the universal law of cause and effect. If our actions are good and virtuous, afflictions will be minimized; wrong actions will bring sorrow and pain. Actions may bear fruit immediately, later in life or in lives to come. They determine one’s birth, span of life and the types of experiences to be undergone. When spiritual wisdom dawns, one perceives the tinge of sorrow attached even to pleasure, and from then on shuns both pleasure and pain. However, the fruits of actions continue to entrap ordinary beings.

How to minimize afflictions

Patañjali counsels dispassion towards pleasures and pains and recommends the practice of meditation to attain freedom and beatitude. First he describes in detail the eightfold path of yoga. Following this path helps one to avoid the dormant, hidden sufferings which may surface when physical health, energy and mental poise are disturbed. This suggests that the eightfold path of yoga is suitable for the unhealthy as well as for the healthy, enabling all to develop the power to combat physical and mental diseases.

Cause of afflictions

The prime cause of afflictions is avidya: the failure to understand the conjunction between the seer and the seen: purusa and prakrti. The external world lures the seer towards its pleasures, creating desire. The inevitable non-fulfilment of desires in turn creates pain, which suffocates the inner being. Nature and her beauties are there for enjoyment and pleasure (bhoga) and also for freedom and emancipation (yoga). If we use them indiscriminately, we are bound by the chains of pleasure and pain. A judicious use of them leads to the bliss which is free from pleasure mixed with pain. The twin paths to this goal are practice (abhyasa), the path of evolution, of going forward; and detachment or renunciation (vairagya), the path of involution, abstaining from the fruits of action and from worldly concerns and engagements.

Cosmology of nature

In samkhya philosophy, the process of evolution and the interaction of spirit and matter, essence and form, are carefully explained.

To follow nature’s evolution from its subtlest concept to its grossest or most dense manifestation, we must start with root nature, mula-prakrti. At this phase of its development, nature is infinite, attributeless and undifferentiated. We may call this phase ‘noumenal’ or alinga (without mark): it can be apprehended only by intuition. It is postulated that the qualities of nature, or gunas, exist in mula-prakrti in perfect equilibrium; one third sattva, one third rajas and one third tamas.

Root nature evolves into the phenomenal stage, called linga (with mark). At this point a disturbance or redistribution takes place in the gunas, giving nature its turbulent characteristic, which is to say that one quality will always predominate over the other two (though never to their entire exclusion; for example, the proportion might be 7/10 tamas, 2/10 rajas, 1/10 sattva, or any other disproportionate rate). The first and most subtle stage of the phenomenal universe is mahat, cosmic intelligence. Mahat is the ‘great principle’, embodying a spontaneous motivating force in nature, without subject or object, acting in both creation and dissolution.

Nature further evolves into the stage called avisesa (universal or non-specific) which can be understood by the intellect but not directly perceived by the senses. To this phase belong the subtle characteristics of the five elements, which may be equated with the infra-atomic structure of elements. These may be explained at a basic level as the inherent quality of smell in earth (prthvi), of taste in water (ap), of sight or shape in fire (tej), of touch in air (vayu) and of sound in ether (akasa). The ‘I’ principle is also in this group.

The final stage, visesa, in which nature is specific and obviously manifest, includes the five elements, the five senses of perception (ears, eyes, nose, tongue and skin), the five organs of action (arms, legs, mouth, generative and excretory organs), and lastly the mind, or the eleventh sense. So in all, there are twenty-four principles (tattvas) of nature, and a twenty-fifth: purusa, atman, or soul. Purus permeates and transcends nature, without belonging to it.

(When purusa stirs the other principles into activity, it is the path of evolution. Its withdrawal from nature is the path of involution. If purusa interacts virtuously with the properties of nature, bliss is experienced; for such a purusa, prakrti becomes a heaven. If wrongly experienced, it becomes a hell.

Sometimes, purusa may remain indifferent, yet we know that nature stirs on its own through the mutation of the gunas, but takes a long time to surface. If purusa, gives a helping hand, nature is disciplined to move in the right way, whether on the path of evolution or involution.)

The sixteen principles of the visesa stage, are the five elements, the five senses of perception and five organs of action, and the mind. They are definable and distinguishable. At the avisesa stage, all five tanmatras – smell, taste, sight or shape, touch and sound – and ahamkara, ego, are undistinguishable and indefinable, yet nevertheless entities in themselves. At the material level of creation, tamas is greater than rajas and sattva, whereas at the psycho-sensory level, rajas and sattva together predominate.

The interaction of the gunas with these sixteen principles shapes our destiny according to our actions. Effectively, our experiences in life derive from the gross manifestations of nature, whether painful or pleasurable; that is, whether manifesting as physical affliction or as art. The delusion that this is the only ‘real’ level can lead to bondage, but fortunately the evolutionary or unfolding structure of nature has provided the possibility of involution, which is the return journey to the source. This is achieved by re-absorbing the specific principles into the non-specific, then back into the alinga state, and finally by withdrawing and merging all phenomenal nature back into its noumenal root, the unmanifested mula-prakrti, rather as one might fold up a telescope.

At the moment when the seer confronts his own self, the principles of nature have been drawn up into their own primordial root and remain quietly there without ruffling the serenity of the purusa. It is sufficient to say here that the involutionary process is achieved by the intervention of discriminating intelligence, and by taming and re-balancing the gunas to their noumenal perfect proportions, so that each stage of re-absorption can take place. Yoga shows us how to do this, starting from the most basic manifest level, our own body.

Once the principles have been withdrawn into their root, their potential remains dormant, which is why a person in the state of samadhi is but can not do; the outward form of nature has folded up like a bird’s wings. If the sadhaka does not pursue his sadhana with sufficient zeal, but rests on his laurels, the principles of nature will be re-activated to ill effect. Nature’s turbulence will again obscure the light of the purusa as the sadhaka is again caught up in the wheel of joy and sorrow. But he who has reached the divine union of purusa and prakrti, and then redoubles his efforts, has only kaivalya before him.

Characteristics of Purusa

Purusa, the seer or the soul, is absolute pure knowledge. Unlike nature (prakrti), which is subject to change, purusa is eternal and unchanging. Free from the qualities of nature, it is an absolute knower of everything. The seer is beyond words, and indescribable. It is the intelligence, one of nature’s sheaths, which enmeshes the seer in the playground of nature and influences and contaminates its purity. As a mirror, when covered with dust, cannot reflect clearly, so the seer, though pure, cannot reflect clearly if the intelligence is clouded. The aspirant who follows the eightfold path of yoga develops discriminative understanding, viveka, and learns to use the playground of nature to clear the intelligence and experience the seer.

Fulfilment

Everyone has an inborn desire to develop sensitivity and maturity in intelligence. That is why God has provided the principles of nature – so that the seer can commune with them and make the fullest use of them for his intellectual and spiritual growth. Nature is there to serve its master, the seer, purusa or atman, the inner being of man. It becomes an obstacle to spiritual enlightenment when used for sensual pleasure, but on the other hand it can help its master to realize his potential and true stature. It is not the fault of nature if human beings abuse it or fall prey to its temptations. Nature is always ready to oblige, or to remain ineffectual, according to our deeds. When we have overcome our intellectual and emotional defects, nature’s gifts readily serve us for realization of the soul. Having fulfilled their functions, they withdraw.

This true Self-Realization is the peak of development of intelligence. It must be sustained, with uninterrupted awareness, in thought, word and deed: then the purpose of nature’s contact with and withdrawal from the seer are fully understood. All sorrows and hatred are washed away, and everlasting unalloyed peace come to the seeker. Nature continues to taunt throughout life, with afflictions and uncertainties, those who have no discriminative power and awareness.

Seven states of wisdom

After explaining the functions of nature and of the seer, Patañjali speaks of the seven states of understanding or wisdom (prajña) that emerge from the release of nature’s contact with the seer. First let us identify the seven corresponding states of ignorance, or avidya:

smallness, feebleness, insignificance, inferiority, meanness

unsteadiness, fickleness, mutability

living with pains, afflictions, misery, agony

living with the association of pain

mistaking the perishable body for the Self

creating conditions for undergoing sorrow

believing that union with the soul (yoga) is impossible, and acting as though that were so

The seven states of wisdom are:

knowing that which has to be known

discarding that which is to be discarded

attaining that which has to be attained

doing that which has to be done

winning the goal that is to be won

freeing the intelligence from the pull of the three gunas of nature

achieving emancipation of the soul so that it shines in its own light

These seven states of wisdom are interpreted as right desire, right reflection, disappearance of memory and mind, experiencing pure sattva or the truth (reality), indifference to praise and blame, reabsorption of phenomenal creation, and living in the vision of the soul. They may be further simplified as:

understanding the body within and without

understanding energy and its uses

understanding mind

consistency of will

awareness of experience

awareness of pure quintessence, sentiment and beauty

understanding that the individual soul, jivatman, is a particle of the Universal Spirit, Paramatman

The Yoga Vasista correlates this sutra (II.27) with the seven stages of individual development:

study and cultivation of the company of wise men

capacity to solve problems

development of non-attachment

dissolution of inherent faults

working towards the bliss in which a half-sleeping and half-wakeful state is experienced

experience of a deep sleep state

attaining a state in which purity, tranquillity and compassion flow out towards others.

The seven frontiers of awareness also correlate with the five sheaths or kosas of the body. Consciousness is the sixth, and the inner self, the seventh.

Patañjali describes the seven states of awareness as:

emerging consciousness (vyutthana citta)

refraining consciousness (nirodha citta)

tranquil consciousness (santa citta)

one-pointed consciousness (ekagra citta)

sprouted consciousness (nirmana citta)

rent consciousness (chidra citta)

pure consciousness (divya citta)

 (See III.9, 10, 11; IV.27 and 29.)

It is also possible to consider the ethical, physical, physiological, neurological, emotional, intellectual and spiritual domains as the seven states of awareness. When one rests on the vision of the soul, divinity is felt in this empirical state.

The Yogic disciplines

The yogic disciplines are yama (restraint) and niyama (practice or observance). These disciplines channel the energies of the organs of action and the senses of perception in the right direction. Asana (posture) results in balance, stillness of mind, and power to penetrate the intelligence. Through Asana we learn to know the body well and to distinguish between motion and action: motion excites the mind while action absorbs it. Pranayama (control of energy through restraint of breath) and pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) help the sadhaka to explore his hidden facets, and enable him to penetrate the core of his being. dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (total absorption) are the fulfilment of yogic discipline, the essence or natural constituents of yoga. They develop when the other five disciplines have been mastered. Actually, all eight intermingle and interweave to form the whole seamless body of yoga.

Yama

There are five yamas: ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacarya (continence) and aparigraha (freedom from avarice or non-covetousness).

Intending no harm in word, thought or deed; being sincere, honest and faithful; being careful not to misappropriate another’s wealth; being chaste and not coveting the possessions of others or accepting gifts, are the practices of yama. It is essential they be observed and followed. They are to be practised individually and collectively irrespective of lineage, place, time, condition or career. The yamas are mighty universal vows, says Patañjali.

Effects of Yama

If the sadhaka adheres to the principles of ahimsa, all beings around him abandon their hostile behaviour. By observance of satya, spoken words fructify into action. All kinds of treasures are bestowed on him who observes asteya. For a brahmacari (a chaste or celibate person), vigour, vitality, energy and spiritual knowledge flow like a river. One who observes aparigraha will come to know of his past and future lives.

Niyama

The five niyamas are to be followed not merely as individual, but also as spiritual, disciplines. They are: sauca (cleanliness or purity), santosa (contentment), tapas (religious fervour), svadhyaya (study of the sacred scriptures and of one’s own self) and Isvara pranidhana (surrender of the self to God).

sauca is of two types, external and internal. One’s daily bath is external; Asana and pranayama cleanse one internally. They help to cleanse one’s thoughts, words and actions, and make the body fit for its Lord to dwell in. Santosa brings about a state of cheerfulness and benevolence. Tapas is a burning effort involving purification, self-discipline and austere practice. It is religiousness or devoutness in the practice of yoga. Tapas purges and purifies the body, senses and mind. Svadhyaya enlightens the practitioner with the knowledge of his inner immortal being. Isvara pranidhana brings the inner being to his creator, the Supreme God.

Actually, the observance of yama brings about niyama, and the practice of niyama disciplines one to follow the principles of yama. For example, non-violence brings purity of thought and deed, truthfulness leads to contentment, non-covetousness leads to tapas. Chastity leads to the study of the self, and non-possessiveness to surrender to God. Similarly, cleanliness leads towards non-violence, and contentment towards truthfulness. Tapas guides one not to misappropriate another’s wealth. Study of the self leads towards chastity, and surrender to God frees one from possessiveness.

By now, the reader is acquainted with the causes of afflictions. Not only do yama and niyama help to minimize and uproot them; they are also the firm foundation of spiritual experience. They are the ethical disciplines which show us what must be done and what must be discarded. They are the golden keys to unlock the spiritual gates.

Sooner or later, improper use of words, impure thoughts and wrong actions result in pain. Pain may be self-inflicted (adhyatmika), due to fate or heredity (adhidaivika), or to imbalance of elements in the body (adhibhautika). It may be caused by lust, anger or greed, indulged in directly, by provocation or by compliancy. The resulting sorrows may be mild, moderate or intense.

The causes of lust, anger and greed can be countered directly by self-analysis, or subdued by invoking their opposites: balance, poise, peace and harmony. Because the latter dualistic approach may cause one to hide from the facts, the former is the better approach. The use of analysis, study and investigation requires courage, strength and discretion. The evocation of opposite tendencies is not a cure, but a help. The first is a direct method of purification; the second an indirect method of appeasement. Patañjali suggests that both should be followed to speed progress.

Asana and its effects

Asana means posture, the positioning of the body as a whole with the involvement of the mind and soul. Asana has two facets, pose and repose. Pose is the artistic assumption of a position. ‘Reposing in the pose’ means finding the perfection of a pose and maintaining it, reflecting in it with penetration of the intelligence and with dedication. When the seeker is closer to the soul, the Asanas come with instantaneous extension, repose and poise.

In the beginning, effort is required to master the Asanas. Effort involves hours, days, months, years and even several lifetimes of work. When effortful effort in an Asana becomes effortless effort, one has mastered that Asanas, In this way, each Asana has to become effortless. While performing the Asanas, one has to relax the cells of the brain, and activate the cells of the vital organs and of the structural and skeletal body. Then intelligence and consciousness may spread to each and every cell.

The conjunction of effort, concentration and balance in Asana forces us to live intensely in the present moment, a rare experience in modern life. This actuality, or being in the present, has both a strengthening and a cleansing effect: physically in the rejection of disease, mentally by ridding our mind of stagnated thoughts or prejudices; and, on a very high level where perception and action become one, by teaching us instantaneous correct action; that is to say, action which does not produce reaction. On that level we may also expunge the residual effects of past actions.

The three origins of pain are eradicated by Asana as we progress from clear vision through right thinking to correct action.

To the new student or non-practitioner of yoga a relentless pursuit of perfection in Asana may seem pointless. To advanced students, a teacher teaches a whole Asana in relationship to what is happening in a single action. At this subtlest level, when we are able to observe the workings of rajas, tamas and sattva in one toe, and to adjust the flow of energy in ina, pitgala and susumna (the three principal nanis, or energy channels), the macrocosmic order of nature is perceived in even the smallest aspects. And when the student then learns how the minutest modifications of a toe can modify the whole Asana, he is observing how the microcosm relates to the whole, and the organic completeness of universal structure is grasped.

The body is the temple of the soul. It can truly become so if it is kept healthy, clean and pure through the practice of Asana.

Asanas act as bridges to unite the body with the mind, and the mind with the soul. They lift the sadhaka from the clutches of afflictions and lead him towards disciplined freedom. They help to transform him by guiding his consciousness away from the body towards awareness of the soul.

Through Asana, the sadhaka comes to know and fully realize the finite body, and merge it with the infinite – the soul. Then there is neither the known nor the unknown and only then does the Asana exist wholly. This is the essence of a perfect Asana.

Pranayama and its effects

Patañjali states that there must be a progression from Asana to pranayama, but does not mention such a progression in the other branches of yoga. He states that pranayama, should be attempted only after perfection is attained in Asana. This does not mean one Asana alone, as is sometimes suggested.

It should be understood why one Asana is not a sufficient basis for the study of pranayama. In pranayama, the spine and the spinal muscles are the sources of action and the lungs are the receiving instruments. They must be trained to open and to extend backwards, forwards, upwards and outwards, and the spinal muscles straightened, cultured and toned to create space and stimulate the spinal nerves to draw energy from the breath. Inverted postures, forward bends, backbends – the whole range of postures – are therefore essential if we are to derive from pranayama the maximum benefit with the minimum strain.

Normal breath flows irregularly, depending on one’s environment and emotional state. In the beginning, this irregular flow of breath is controlled by a deliberate process. This control creates ease in the inflow and outflow of the breath. When this ease is attained, the breath must be regulated with attention. This is pranayama.

Prana means life force and ayama means ascension, expansion and extension. Pranyama is the expansion of the life force through control of the breath. In modern terms, Prana is equated to bio-energy and works as follows. According to samkhya and yoga philosophies, man is composed of the five elements: earth, water, fire, air and ether. The spine is an element of earth and acts as the field for respiration. Distribution and creation of space in the torso is the function of ether. Respiration represents the element of air. The remaining elements, water and fire, are by nature opposed to one another. The practice of pranayama fuses them to produce energy. This energy is called Prana: life force or bio-energy.

Ayama means extension, vertical ascension, as well as horizontal expansion and circumferential expansion of the breath, lungs and ribcage.

Pranyama by nature has three components: inhalation, exhalation and retention. They are carefully learned by elongating the breath and prolonging the time of retention according to the elasticity of the torso, the length and depth of breath and the precision of movements. This pranayama is known as deliberate or sahita pranayama as one must practise it consciously and continuously in order to learn its rhythm.

To inhalation, exhalation and retention, Patañjali adds one more type of pranayama, that is free from deliberate action. This pranayama, being natural and non-deliberate, transcends the sphere of breath which is modulated by mental volition. It is called kevala kumbhaka or kevala pranayama.

The practice of pranayama removes the veil of ignorance covering the light of intelligence and makes the mind a fit instrument to embark on meditation for the vision of the soul. This is the spiritual quest.

(For further details see Light on Yoga, The Art of Yoga and Light on pranayama (HarperCollinsPublishers) and The Tree of Yoga (Fine Line Books).

Pratyahara

Through the practices of yama, niyama, Asana and pranayama, the body and its energy are mastered. The next stage, pratyahara, achieves the conquest of the senses and mind.

When the mind becomes ripe for meditation, the senses rest quietly and stop importuning the mind for their gratification. Then the mind, which hitherto acted as a bridge between the senses and the soul, frees itself from the senses and turns towards the soul to enjoy its spiritual heights. This is the effect of disciplines laid out in sadhana pada. Pratyahara, the result of the practice of yama, niyama, Asana and pranayama, forms the foundation for dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Through practice of these five stages of yoga, all the layers or sheaths of the self from the skin to the consciousness are penetrated, subjugated and sublimated to enable the soul to diffuse evenly throughout. This is true sadhana.

III. Vibhuti Pada

In samadhi pada, Patañjali explains why the intelligence is hazy, sluggish and dull, and gives practical disciplines to minimize and finally eliminate the dross which clouds it. Through these, the sadhaka develops a clear head and an untainted mind, and his senses of perception are then naturally tamed and subdued. The sadhaka’s intelligence and consciousness can now become fit instruments for meditation on the soul.

In vibhuti pada, Patañjali first shows the sadhaka the need to integrate the intelligence, ego and ‘I’ principle. He then guides him in the subtle disciplines: concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and total absorption (samadhi). With their help, the intelligence, ego and ‘I’ principle are sublimated. This may lead either to the release of various supernatural powers or to Self-Realization.

Samyama

Patañjali begins this pada with dharana, concentration, and points out some places within and outside the body to be used by the seeker for concentration and contemplation. If dharana is maintained steadily, it flows into dhyana (meditation). When the meditator and the object meditated upon become one, dhyana flows into samadhi. Thus, dharana, dhyana and samadhi are interconnected. This integration is called by Patañjali samyama. Through samyama the intelligence, ego and sense of individuality withdraw into their seed. Then the sadhaka’s intelligence shines brilliantly with the lustre of wisdom, and his understanding is enlightened. He turns his attention to a progressive exploration of the core of his being, the soul.

Intelligence

Having defined the subtle facets of man’s nature as intelligence, ego, the ‘I’ principle and the inner self, Patañjali analyses them one by one to reveal their hidden content. He begins with the intellectual brain, which oscillates between one-pointed and scattered attention. If the sadhaka does not recollect how, where and when his attention became disconnected from the object contemplated, he becomes a wanderer: his intelligence remains untrained. By careful observation, and reflection on the qualities of the intelligence, the sadhaka distinguishes between its multi-faceted and its one-pointed manifestation, and between the restless and silent states. To help him, Patañjali explains how the discriminative faculty can be used to control emerging thought, to suppress the emergence of thought waves and to observe the appearance of moments of silence. If the sadhaka observes and holds these intermittent periods of silence, he experiences a state of restfulness. If this is deliberately prolonged, the stream of tranquillity will flow without disturbance.

Holding this tranquil flow of calmness without allowing the intelligence to forget itself, the seeker moves towards the seer. This movement leads to inner attention and awareness, which is in turn the basis for drawing the consciousness towards integration with the inner self. When this integration is established, the seeker realizes that the contemplator, the instrument used for contemplation, and the object of contemplation are one and the same, the seer or the soul: in other words, subject, object and instrument become one.

Bringing the intelligence, buddhi, to a refined, tranquil steadiness is dharana. When this is achieved, buddhi is re-absorbed by a process of involution into the consciousness, citta, whose inherent expression is a sharp awareness but without focus. This is dhyana. The discrimination and unwinking observation which are properties of buddhi must constantly be ready to prevent consciousness from clouding and dhyana from slipping away. Buddhi is the activator of pure citta.

When the sadhaka has disciplined and understood the intelligence, the stream of tranquillity flows smoothly, uninfluenced by pleasure or pain. Then he learns to exercise his awareness, to make it flow with peace and poise. This blending of awareness and tranquillity brings about a state of virtue, which is the powerful ethic, or sakti, of the soul, the culmination of intelligence and consciousness. This culturing of intelligence is an evolution, and virtue is its special quality. Maintenance of this civilized, cultured, virtuous state leads to a perfect propriety, wherein the intelligence continues to be refined, and the sadhaka moves ever closer to the spiritual zenith of yoga.

Properties of yoga

Patañjali guides the refined sadhaka in tracing the movements, order and sequence of each action and thought that arises. By retracing his steps through yogic discipline, the sadhaka coordinates his thoughts and actions so that there is no time gap between them. When there is absolute synchronicity of thought and action, the yogi is freed from the material limitations of time and space and this generates extraordinary powers. Patañjali describes these powers as vibhutis, or properties, of yoga.

The properties of yoga are many. Experiencing even one of their extraordinary effects is an indication that the sadhaka is on the right path in his practice of yoga. However, see the next section, ‘Caution’, on page 37.

He begins to know the past and future

He understands the language of all people, birds and animals

He knows his past and future lives

He reads the minds of others

If necessary, he can define even the precise details of what is in the minds of others

He becomes invisible at will

He can arrest the senses: hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell

He knows the exact time of his death by intuition or through omens

He is friendly and compassionate to all

He becomes strong as an elephant and his movements are as graceful as a peacock

He clearly sees objects near and far, gross and fine, and concealed

He knows the working of the solar system

He knows the functions of the lunar system and through that, the position of the galaxies

He reads the movements of stars from the pole star and predicts world events

He knows his body and its orderly functions

He conquers hunger and thirst

He makes his body and mind immobile like a tortoise

He has visions of perfected beings, teachers and masters

He has the power to perceive anything and everything

He becomes aware of the properties of consciousness

By knowing the properties of consciousness he uses consciousness to light the lamp of the soul

Divine faculties which are beyond the range of ordinary senses come to him because of his enlightened soul

He leaves his body consciously and enters others’ bodies at will

He walks over water, swamp and thorns

He creates fire at will

He hears distant sounds

He levitates

He frees himself from afflictions at will and often lives without a body

He controls nature’s constituents, qualities and purposes

He becomes lord of the elements and their counterparts

He possesses an excellent body with grace, strength, perfect complexion and lustre

He has perfect control over his senses and mind, and their contact with the lower self or the ‘I’ consciousness

He transforms body, senses, mind, intelligence and consciousness to utmost sharpness and speed in tune with his very soul

He gains dominion over all creation and all knowledge

Caution

These powers are extraordinary. The appearance of any one of them indicates that the sadhaka has followed methods appropriate to his evolution. But he should not mistake these powers for the goal of his search. For onlookers they may seem to be great accomplishments, but for the sadhaka they are hindrances to samadhi. Even celestial beings try to seduce the sadhaka. If he succumbs to these temptations, misfortunes overwhelm him.

If a yogi gets carried away by supernatural powers and uses them for fame, he fails in his sadhana. He is like a man who tries to save himself from the wind only to get caught up in a whirlwind. A yogi who attains certain powers and misconstrues them for his goal is caught in their effects and exposes himself to their afflictions. Therefore, Patañjali warns the sadhaka to renounce these accomplishments, so that the gates of everlasting bliss may open for him. He is counselled to develop non-attachment which destroys pride, a cardinal pitfall for those who acquire powers.

Adherence to the practice of yama and niyama, as described in sadhana pada, will ensure that the sadhaka does not get caught up in these powers, or misuse them.

Moment and movement

Moment is subjective and movement is objective. Patañjali explains that the moment is the present and the present is the eternal now: it is timeless, and real. When it slips from attention, it becomes movement, and movement is time. As moment rolls into movement, the past and the future appear and the moment disappears. Going with the movements of moments is the future; retraction of this is the past. The moment alone is the present.

Past and future create changes; the present is changeless. The fluctuations of consciousness into the past and future create time. If the mind, intelligence and consciousness are kept steady, and aware of moments without being caught in movements, the state of no-mind and no-time is experienced. This state is amanaskatva. The seer sees directly, independent of the workings of the mind. The yogi becomes the mind’s master, not its slave. He lives in a mind-free, time-free state. This is known as vivekaja jñanam: vivid, true knowledge.

Pure intelligence

Exalted intelligence is pure and true, untainted and uncontaminated. It distinguishes, clearly and instantly, the difference between similar entities, without analysing them according to rank, creed, quality and place.

This intelligence is true, pure and clean, as is the very soul. The yogi who possesses it is free from pride and prejudice. His intelligence and consciousness now rise to the level of the soul. As honey tastes the same from whichever side of the honeycomb it is taken, so, in the yogi, the body cells, senses, mind, intelligence, consciousness and conscience equally reflect the light of the soul. All parts of the seer appear as the soul. This is kaivalya. It comes when the powers which attract the misguided, but distract the yogi’s consciousness, are renounced.

IV: Kaivalya Pada

Kaivalya means exclusiveness, or eternal emancipation. It is release from karma: the consequences and obligations of our actions. Kaivalya is an absolute, indivisible state of existence. In it, the yogi is stripped of thoughts, mind, intellect and ego, and freed from the play of the gunas of nature, sattva, rajas and tamas. He becomes a gunatitan, a pure, flawless person.

In vibhuti pada, Patañjali describes the supernatural powers that attend such exalted yogis and how the renunciation of these powers results in kaivalya: the crowning end of the yogic sadhana, a state of fullness of the soul and of unique aloneness.

This chapter, Kaivalya pada, is impressive and exhaustive. One of its main themes is that the content of consciousness is pure, absolute and divine, provided it is unsullied by action, be it white (sattvic), grey (rajasic) or black (tamasic). The absolute nature of consciousness is to be realized by propitious birth, spiritual fervour and meditation. The cleansing transformation of consciousness liberates life-energy which accelerates the process of self-evolution. Progressively, one disentangles oneself from life’s preoccupations with dharma, duty; artha, means of livelihood; and kama, worldly enjoyment. This transcendence leads to freedom, or moksa. Consciousness, released from the attributes of nature, dissolves in the soul, purusa.

This chapter deals with the necessary rejection by yogis of the supernatural powers which attend their spiritual ascent, and indicates how such men and women, who have in a sense left the world behind, may then serve the world.

Five types of Yogis

Kaivalya pada opens with the contention that prodigious yogic powers may be inborn, acquired by merit accumulated through practice in former lives. They may also be attained through use of herbs (ausadhi), incantation (mantra), devoted discipline (tapas), meditation (dhyana) and total absorption (samadhi).

In these five types of yogis, nature’s energy, which later becomes known as kundalini, flows with ever-increasing abundance, preparing them to receive the infinite light of the soul. If misused, this energetic current will vanish, after destroying its user. This is why tapas and samadhi are held to be the best of the five: they provide a firm foundation for stable growth, which prevents the yogi from misusing the energy built up through his practices.

The yogi’s judicious use of natural forces can be compared to the farmer who floods his fields one by one within their earthen banks, letting the water thoroughly drench the soil before breaking open a new channel into another. For safety’s sake, the yogi employs method and restraint so as to use nature’s energy (sakti) intelligently to gain wisdom.

Talent

It takes talent to grasp nature’s potential and measure its use. The danger is that power leads to pride and builds ego, eclipsing one’s essential divinity. The root of the ego is the same pure consciousness; it is its contact with external phenomena that generates desire, the seed of impurity. Purity is humility. When sullied by cleverness it becomes pride, which causes consciousness to dissipate itself in the fluctuations of thought. Tapas and samadhi are the most reliable means to acquire yogic talent.

Actions

Actions are of four types. They are black, white, grey, or without these attributes. The last is beyond the gunas of rajas, tamas and sattva, free from intention, motivation and desire, pure and sourceless, and outside the law of cause and effect that governs all other actions. Motivated action leads eventually to pride, affliction and unhappiness; the genuine yogi performs only actions which are motiveless: free of desire, pride and effect.

The chain of cause and effect is like a ball endlessly rebounding from the walls and floor of a squash court. Memory, conscious or sublimated, links this chain, even across many lives. This is because every action of the first three types leaves behind a residual impression, encoded in our deepest memory, which thereafter continues to turn the karmic wheel, provoking reaction and further action. The consequences of action may take effect instantaneously, or lie in abeyance for years, even through several lives. Tamasic action is considered to give rise to pain and sorrow, rajasic to mixed results, and sattvic to more agreeable ones. Depending on their provenance, the fruits of action may either tie us to lust, anger and greed, or turn us towards the spiritual quest. These residual impressions are called samskaras: they build the cycles of our existence and decide the station, time and place of our birth. The yogi’s actions, being pure, leave no impressions and excite no reactions, and are therefore free from residual impressions.

Desires and impressions

Desires, and knowledge derived from memory or residual impressions, exist eternally. They are as much a part of our being as is the will to cling to life. In a perfect yogi’s life, desires and impressions have an end; when the mechanism of cause and effect is disconnected by pure, motiveless action, the yogi transcends the world of duality and desires and attachment wither and fall away.

Time

Yogic discipline eradicates ignorance, avidya. When illusion is banished, time becomes timeless. Though time is a continuum, it has three movements: past, present and future. Past and future are woven into the present and the present is timeless and eternal. Like the potter’s wheel, the present – the moment – rolls into movement as day and night, creating the impression that time is moving. The mind, observing the movement of time, differentiates it as past, present and future. Because of this, the perception of objects varies at different times.

Though the permanent characters of time, the object and the subject remain in their own entities, the mind sees them differently according to the development of its intelligence, and creates disparity between observation and reflection. Hence, actions and fulfilments differ. An illustration of this would be that we recognize the difference between what is involved when a murderer kills for money, a soldier kills for his country and a man kills defending his family against bandits. It is all killing, but the implications are radically different in each case, according to the development of the individual.

The yogi is alert to, and aware of, the present, and lives in the present, using past experience only as a platform for the present. This brings changelessness in the attitude of the mind towards the object seen.

Subject and object

Earlier chapters point out that whereas nature is eternal, its qualities or gunas, are ever-changing. This blending of the gunas creates diversity in the mind so that it sees objects in different ways. The object is the same and the mind, too, is the same. But the same mind has many qualities of mood and behaviour. This fragmentation is the cause of avidya. The mind divided by the gunas moulds and remoulds man. As the gunas move in rhythmic unity, intellectual development differs qualitatively in each person and each one sees objects differently, though their essence does not change.

The yogi studies the uniqueness of that rhythmic mutation, keeps aloof from it, and rests in his own essence, his soul. This essence, and the essence of the perceived object, are the same for him. Through self-examination, he realizes that objects do not change, but that he himself fabricates their apparent changes. He learns to perceive without prejudice, aware that objects exist independently, irrespective of his cognition of them. His clear, unpolluted mind sees objects as they are, separate from him and therefore unable to leave an impression on him. Being free from bias, he is free from karma.

Cit and citta (universal and individual consciousness)

The unalterable seer (cit) is the Lord of the consciousness. He is ever-present, changeless, constant, ever-luminous. The seer can be both subject and object at the same time. He is aware of all mutations taking place in his mind, intelligence and consciousness. He knows that they are his products and that they may taint him as long as avidya and asmita survive.

The seer is the seed, and consciousness the seedling. Mind is the stem, and vrittis, the fluctuations or thought-waves, are the leaves, relayed via mind through the single consciousness, the stem, back to the seed.

Consciousness and its branches, intelligence, mind and thought, become objects of the seer. The branches have no existence of their own without consciousness, and consciousness has none without the seer. It borrows light from the seer and extends towards intelligence, mind and thought. As it is not self-illumined it cannot be at once subject and object. It is a knowable object to the seer just as the objects of the world are knowable to it.

The cit (seer, soul, cosmic consciousness) is a passive, omniscient witness, whereas the citta (created or ‘sprouted’ consciousness) is active, impressionable and engaged, because it is involved in a direct relationship with the outside world. But when that involvement is analysed, controlled and brought to stillness, the citta gravitates towards its source, the cit, and takes on its characteristics, so that for the realized being cit and citta become one. The problem is that for the average person, the sprouted consciousness appears to be the seer, while in reality it merely masks the seer. Studying citta, we come to understand that it has no light of its own, but is dependent on its progenitor, the seer. Until this realization dawns, consciousness acts as a prism, distorting vision. Once it merges with the seer it becomes a perfect reflector, as well as a reflection, mirroring its own pure image, the soul reflecting on the soul.

So we see that citta can be pulled in two directions: outwards towards its mother, nature, prakrti, or inwards towards its father, spirit, purusa. The role of yoga is to show us that the ultimate goal of citta is to take the second path, away from the world to the bliss of the soul. Yoga both offers the goal and supplies the means to reach it. He who finds his soul is Yogesvara, Lord or God of yoga, or Yogiraja, a King among yogis.

Now, nothing is left to be known or acquired by him.

Caution

Patañjali warns that even such exalted yogis are not beyond all danger of relapse. Even when oneness between cit and citta is achieved, inattention, carelessness, or pride in one’s achievement await opportunity to return, and fissure the consciousness. In this loss of concentration, old thoughts and habits may re-emerge to disturb the harmony of kaivalya.

If this takes place, the yogi has no alternative but to resume his purificatory struggle in the same way as less evolved people combat their own grosser afflictions.

The dawn of spiritual and sorrowless light

If the Yogesvara’s indivisible state is unwaveringly sustained, a stream of virtue pours from his heart like torrential rain: dharma megha samadhi, or rain-cloud of virtue or justice. The expression has two complementary overtones. Dharma means duty; megha means cloud. Clouds may either obscure the sun’s light or clear the sky by sending down rain to reveal it. If citta’s union with the seer is fissured it drags its master towards worldly pleasures (bhoga). If union is maintained it leads the aspirant towards kaivalya. Through yogic discipline, consciousness is made virtuous so that its possessor can become, and be, a yogi, a jñanin, a bhaktan and a paravairagin.

All actions and reactions cease in that person who is now a Yogesvara. He is free from the clutches of nature and karma. From now on, there is no room in his citta for the production of effects; he never speaks or acts in a way that binds him to nature. When the supply of oil to a lamp is stopped, the lamp is extinguished. In this yogi, when the fuel of desires dries out, the lamp of the mind cannot burn, and begins to fade on its own. Then infinite wisdom issues forth spontaneously.

The knowledge that is acquired through senses, mind and intellect is insignificant beside that emanating from the vision of the seer. This is the real intuitive knowledge.

When the clouds disappear, the sky clears and the sun shines brilliantly. When the sun shines, does one need artificial light to see? When the light of the soul blazes, the light of consciousness is needed no longer.

Nature and its qualities cease to affect the fulfilled yogi. From now on they serve him devotedly, without interfering with or influencing his true glory. He understands the sequence of time and its relationship with nature. He is crowned with the wisdom of living in the eternal Now. The eternal Now is Divine and he too is Divine. All his aims of life are fulfilled. He is a krtharthan, a fulfilled soul, one without equal, living in benevolent freedom and beatitude. He is alone and complete. This is kaivalya.

Patañjali begins the Yoga Sutras with atha, meaning ‘now’, and ends with iti, ‘that is all’. Besides this search for the soul, there is nothing.

Yoga Sutras

Text, translation and commentary

Part one

Samadhi Pada

Samadhi means yoga and yoga means samadhi. This pada therefore explains the significance of yoga as well as of samadhi: both mean profound meditation and supreme devotion.

For aspirants endowed with perfect physical health, mental poise, discriminative intelligence and a spiritual bent, Patañjali provides guidance in the disciplines of practice and detachment to help them attain the spiritual zenith, the vision of the soul (atma-darsana).

The word citta has often been translated as ‘mind’. In the West, it is considered that mind not only has the power of conation or volition, cognition and motion, but also that of discrimination.

But citta really means ‘consciousness’. Indian philosophers analysed citta and divided it into three facets: mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi) and ego, or the sense of self (ahamkara). They divided the mental body into two parts: the mental sheath and the intellectual sheath. People have thus come to think of consciousness and mind as the same. In this work, consciousness refers both to the mental sheath (manomaya kosa) as mind, and to the intellectual sheath (vijñanamaya kosa) as wisdom. Mind acquires knowledge objectively, whereas intelligence learns through subjective experience, which becomes wisdom. As cosmic intelligence is the first principle of nature, so consciousness is the first principle of man.

I.1 atha yoganusAsanam

atha

now, auspiciousness, a prayer, a blessing, benediction, authority, a good omen

yoga

joining, union, junction, combination, application, use, means, result, deep meditation, concentration, contemplation of the Supreme Spirit

anusAsanam

advice, direction, order, command, instructions, laying down rules and precepts, a revised text, introduction, or guide given in procedural form. Thus, it means guidance in the codes of conduct which are to be observed, and which form the base from which to cultivate one’s ethical and spiritual life.

With prayers for divine blessings, now begins an exposition of the sacred art of yoga.

Now follows a detailed exposition of the discipline of yoga, given step by step in the right order, and with proper direction for self-alignment.

Patañjali is the first to offer us a codification of yoga, its practice and precepts, and the immediacy of the new light he is shedding on a known and ancient subject is emphasized by his use of the word ‘now’. His reappraisal, based on his own experience, explores fresh ground, and bequeathes us a lasting, monumental work. In the cultural context of his time his words must have been crystal clear, and even to the spiritually impoverished modern mind they are never confused, although they are often almost impenetrably condensed.

The word ‘now’ can also be seen in the context of a progression from Patañjali’s previous works, his treatises on grammar and on ayurveda. Logically we must consider these to predate the Yoga Sutras, as grammar is a prerequisite of lucid speech and clear comprehension, and ayurvedic medicine of bodily cleanliness and inner equilibrium. Together, these works served as preparation for Patañjali’s crowning exposition of yoga: the cultivation and eventual transcendence of consciousness, culminating in liberation from the cycles of rebirth.

These works are collectively known as moksa sastras (spiritual sciences), treatises which trace man’s evolution from physical and mental bondage towards ultimate freedom. The treatise on yoga flows naturally from the ayurvedic work, and guides the aspirant (sadhaka) to a trained and balanced state of consciousness.

In this first chapter Patañjali analyses the components of consciousness and its behavioural patterns, and explains how its fluctuations can be stilled in order to achieve inner absorption and integration. In the second, he reveals the whole linking mechanism of yoga, by means of which ethical conduct, bodily vigour and health and physiological vitality are built into the structure of the human evolutionary progress towards freedom. In the third chapter, Patañjali prepares the mind to reach the soul. In the fourth, he shows how the mind dissolves into the consciousness and consciousness into the soul, and how the sadhaka drinks the nectar of immortality.

The Brahma Sutra, a treatise dealing with Vedanta philosophy (the knowledge of Brahman), also begins with the word atha or ‘now’: athato Brahma jijñasa. There, ‘now’ stands for the desire to know Brahman. Brahman is dealt with as the object of study and is discussed and explored throughout as the object. In the Yoga Sutras, it is the seer or the true Self who is to be discovered and known. Yoga is therefore considered to be a subjective art, science and philosophy. ‘Yoga’ has various connotations as mentioned at the outset, but here it stands for samadhi, the indivisible state of existence.

So, this sutra may be taken to mean: ‘the disciplines of integration are here expounded through experience, and are given to humanity for the exploration and recognition of that hidden part of man which is beyond the awareness of the senses’.

I.2 yogah cittavrtti nirodhah

yogah

union or integration from the outermost layer to the innermost self, that is, from the skin to the muscles, bones, nerves, mind, intellect, will, consciousness and self

citta

consciousness, which is made up of three factors: mind (manas), intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahammkara). Citta is the vehicle of observation, attention, aims and reason; it has three functions, cognition, conation or volition, and motion

vrtti

state of mind, fluctuations in mind, course of conduct, behaviour, a state of being, mode of action, movement, function, operation

nirodhah

  obstruction, stoppage, opposition, annihilation, restraint, control,  cessation

Yoga is the cessation of movements in the consciousness.

Yoga is defined as restraint of fluctuations in the consciousness. It is the art of studying the behaviour of consciousness, which has three functions: cognition, conation or volition, and motion. Yoga shows ways of understanding the functionings of the mind, and helps to quieten their movements, leading one towards the undisturbed state of silence which dwells in the very seat of consciousness. Yoga is thus the art and science of mental discipline through which the mind becomes cultured and matured.

This vital sutra contains the definition of yoga: the control or restraint of the movement of consciousness, leading to their complete cessation.

Citta is the vehicle which takes the mind (manas) towards the soul (atma). Yoga is the cessation of all vibration in the seat of consciousness. It is extremely difficult to convey the meaning of the word citta because it is the subtlest form of cosmic intelligence (mahat). Mahat is the great principle, the source of the material world of nature (prakrti), as opposed to the soul, which is an offshoot of nature. According to samkhya philosophy, creation is effected by the mingling of prakrti with Purusa, the cosmic Soul. This view of cosmology is also accepted by the yoga philosophy. The principles of Purusa and prakrti are the source of all action, volition and silence.

Words such as citta, buddhi and mahat are so often used interchangeably that the student can easily become confused. One way to structure one’s understanding is to remember that every phenomenon which has reached its full evolution or individuation has a subtle or cosmic counterpart. Thus, we translate buddhi as the individual discriminating intelligence, and consider mahat to be its cosmic counterpart. Similarly, the individuated consciousness, citta, is matched by its subtle form cit. For the purpose of Self-Realization, the highest awareness of consciousness and the most refined faculty of intelligence have to work so much in partnership that it is not always useful to split hairs by separating them. (See Introduction, part I – Cosmology of Nature.)

The thinking principle, or conscience (antahkarana) links the motivating principle of nature (mahat) to individual consciousness which can be thought of as a fluid enveloping ego (ahamkara), intelligence (buddhi) and mind (manas). This ‘fluid’ tends to become cloudy and opaque due to its contact with the external world via its three components. The sadhaka’s aim is to bring the consciousness to a state of purity and translucence. It is important to note that consciousness not only links evolved or manifest nature to non-evolved or subtle nature; it is also closest to the soul itself, which does not belong to nature, being merely immanent in it.

Buddhi possesses the decisive knowledge which is determined by perfect action and experience. Manas gathers and collects information through the five senses of perception, jñanendriyas, and the five organs of action, karmendriyas. Cosmic intelligence, ego, individual intelligence, mind, the five senses of perception and the five organs of action are the products of the five elements of nature – earth, water, fire, air and ether (prthvi, ap, tejas, vayu and akasa) – with their infra-atomic qualities of smell, taste, form or sight, touch and sound (gandha, rasa, rupa, sparsa and sabda).

In order to help man to understand himself, the sages analysed humans as being composed of five sheaths, or kosas:

Sheath

Corresponding element

Anatomical (annamaya)

Earth

Physiological (pranamaya)

Water

Mental (manomaya)

Fire

Intellectual (vijñanamaya)

Air

Blissful (anandamaya)

Ether

The first three sheaths are within the field of the elements of nature. The intellectual sheath is said to be the layer of the individual soul (jivatman), and the blissful sheath the layer of the universal Soul (paramatman). In effect, all five sheaths have to be penetrated to reach emancipation. The innermost content of the sheaths, beyond even the blissful body, is purusa, the indivisible, non-manifest One, the ‘void which is full’. This is experienced in nirbija samadhi, whereas sabija samadhi is experienced at the level of the blissful body.

If ahamkara (ego) is considered to be one end of a thread, then antaratma (Universal Self) is the other end. Antahkarana (conscience) is the unifier of the two.

The practice of yoga integrates a person through the journey of intelligence and consciousness from the external to the internal. It unifies him from the intelligence of the skin to the intelligence of the self, so that his self merges with the cosmic Self. This is the merging of one half of one’s being (prakrti) with the other (purusa). Through yoga, the practitioner learns to observe and to think, and to intensify his effort until eternal joy is attained. This is possible only when all vibrations of the individual citta are arrested before they emerge.

Yoga, the restraint of fluctuating thought, leads to a sattvic state. But in order to restrain the fluctuations, force of will is necessary: hence a degree of rajas is involved. Restraint of the movements of thought brings about stillness, which leads to deep silence, with awareness. This is the sattvic nature of the citta.

Stillness is concentration (dharana) and silence is meditation (dhyana). Concentration needs a focus or a form, and this focus is ahamkara, one’s own small, individual self. When concentration flows into meditation, that self loses its identity and becomes one with the great Self. Like two sides of a coin, ahamkara and atma are the two opposite poles in man.

The sadhaka is influenced by the self on the one hand and by objects perceived on the other. When he is engrossed in the object, his mind fluctuates. This is vrtti. His aim should be to distinguish the self from the objects seen, so that it does not become enmeshed by them. Through yoga, he should try to free his consciousness from the temptations of such objects, and bring it closer to the seer. Restraining the fluctuations of the mind is a process which leads to an end: samadhi. Initially, yoga acts as the means of restraint. When the sadhaka has attained a total state of restraint, yogic discipline is accomplished and the end is reached: the consciousness remains pure. Thus, yoga is both the means and the end.

(See I.18; II.28.)

1.3 tatla drastuh svarupe avasthanam

tada

then, at that time

drastuh

the soul, the seer

svarupe

in his own, in his state

avasthanam

rests, abides, dwells, resides, radiates

Then, the seer dwells in his own true splendour.

When the waves of consciousness are stilled and silenced, they can no longer distort the true expression of the soul. Revealed in his own nature, the radiant seer abides in his own grandeur.

Volition being the mode of behaviour of the mind, it is liable to change our perception of the state and condition of the seer from moment to moment. When it is restrained and regulated, a reflective state of being is experienced. In this state, knowledge dawns so clearly that the true grandeur of the seer is seen and felt. This vision of the soul radiates without any activity on the part of citta. Once it is realized, the soul abides in its own seat.

(See I.16, 29, 47, 51; II.21, 23, 25; III.49, 56; IV.22, 25, 34.)

I.4 vrtti sarupyam itaratra

vrtti

behaviour, fluctuation, modification, function, state of mind

sarupyam

identification, likeness, closeness, nearness

itaratra

at other times, elsewhere

At other times, the seer identifies with the fluctuating consciousness.

When the seer identifies with consciousness or with the objects seen, he unites with them and forgets his grandeur.

The natural tendency of consciousness is to become involved with the object seen, draw the seer towards it, and move the seer to identify with it. Then the seer becomes engrossed in the object. This becomes the seed for diversification of the intelligence, and makes the seer forget his own radiant awareness.

When the soul does not radiate its own glory, it is a sign that the thinking faculty has manifested itself in place of the soul.

The imprint of objects is transmitted to citta through the senses of perception. Citta absorbs these sensory impressions and becomes coloured and modified by them. Objects act as provender for the grazing citta, which is attracted to them by its appetite. Citta projects itself, taking on the form of the objects in order to possess them. Thus it becomes enveloped by thoughts of the object, with the result that the soul is obscured. In this way, citta becomes murky and causes changes in behaviour and mood as it identifies itself with things seen. (See III.36.)

Although in reality citta is a formless entity, it can be helpful to visualize it in order to grasp its functions and limitations. Let us imagine it to be like an optical lens, containing no light of its own, but placed directly above a source of pure light, the soul. One face of the lens, facing inwards towards the light, remains clean. We are normally aware of this internal facet of citta only when it speaks to us with the voice of conscience.

In daily life, however, we are very much aware of the upper surface of the lens, facing outwards to the world and linked to it by the senses and mind. This surface serves both as a sense, and as a content of consciousness, along with ego and intelligence. Worked upon by the desires and fears of turbulent worldly life, it becomes cloudy, opaque, even dirty and scarred, and prevents the soul’s light from shining through it. Lacking inner illumination, it seeks all the more avidly the artificial lights of conditioned existence. The whole technique of yoga, its practice and restraint, is aimed at dissociating consciousness from its identification with the phenomenal world, at restraining the senses by which it is ensnared, and at cleansing and purifying the lens of citta, until it transmits wholly and only the light of the soul.

(See II.20; IV.22.)

I.5 vrttayah pañcatayyah klista aklistah

vrttayah

movements, modification

pañcatayyah

fivefold

klista

afflicting, tormenting, distressing, painful

aklistah

untroubling, undisturbing, unafflicting, undistressing, pleasing

The movements of consciousness are fwefold. They may be cognizable or non-cognizable, painful or non-painful.

Fluctuations or modifications of the mind may be painful or non-painful, cognizable or non-cognizable. Pain may be hidden in the non-painful state, and the non-painful may be hidden in the painful state. Either may be cognizable or non-cognizable.

When consciousness takes the lead, naturally the seer takes a back seat. The seed of change is in the consciousness and not in the seer. Consciousness sees objects in relation to its own idiosyncrasies, creating fluctuations and modifications in one’s thoughts. These modifications, of which there are five, are explained in the next sutra. They may be visible or hidden, painful or not, distressing or pleasing, cognizable or non-cognizable.

The previous sutra explains that the consciousness involves the seer with the objects seen by it, and invites five types of fluctuations which can be divided and subdivided almost infinitely.

Thoughts, when associated with anguish, are known as painful (klista) conditions of the mind and consciousness. For example, a live coal covered with ash appears to be ash. If one touches it, it burns the skin at once. The live coal was in an incognizable, or aklista state. The moment the skin was burned, it became cognizable, or klista. As anguish predominates in pain, the pleasing state cannot be identified with it, though it exists side by side. The pleasure of sex ends in the agony of labour pain at the time of delivery, to be followed by all the cycles of joy, worry and sadness associated with parenthood.

Even highly evolved souls, who have reached a certain spiritual height, as in 1.18 which describes a non-painful, blissful state, are cautioned by Patañjali in 1.19. He warns that, though the yogi remains free while the virtuous potencies continue to be powerful, the moment they fade away he has to strive again, a painful end to the attainment of the spiritual pinnacle. Alternatively, the pains may be hidden, and may appear as non-painful for a long time, until they surface. For example, cancer can remain undetected for a long time until it reaches a painful and tormenting state.

Cognizable pains and anguishes are controlled or annihilated by the practice of yoga, and by willpower. Incognizable pains are prevented from rising to the state of cognition by freedom from desires (vAsanas) and by non-attachment (vairagya), in addition to yogic sadhana.

In II.12, Patañjali uses the words drsta (visible) and adrsta (unperceived, invisible). These may be compared to klista and aklista. Nature causes the five fluctuations to appear in their affictive klista forms, whereas purusa tends to bring them to the aklista state. For example, the klista form of memory is bondage in psychological time, the aklista form is the function of discrimination. Both the painful and non-painful states can be visible or hidden. The known, visible pains and pleasures can be reduced or eradicated. In painful states the ‘non-pains’ may be hidden, and consequently the virtues are difficult to recognize or perceive. Both these states must be stopped by yogic practice and renunciation. In sutras I.23, 27, 28, 33–39, and in II.29, Patañjali underlines the means of reaching the zenith of virtue, which is freedom and beatitude.

The citta acts as the wheel, while klista and aklista states are like the two spokes of the wheel which cause fluctuations and modulations in one’s self. The vrttis in their klista and aklista manifestations are not separate parallel entities, but feed and support each other. For example, the dullness which is the negative aspect of sleep supports the wrong perception of the other modulations of consciousness, whereas the positive experience of sleep (the passive, virtuous state experienced immediately on waking, when the ‘I’ is silent) gives a glimmer of a higher state, encouraging the efforts of right knowledge and discrimination. If the wheel is at rest, the spokes remain steady, and the citta becomes free from vrttis.

(For afflictions, see I.30, 31; II.3, 12, 16, 17.)

1.6 pramana viparyaya vikalpa nidra smrtayah

pramana

valid knowledge, experienced knowledge, correct knowledge which is studied and verified, proof, or evidence

viparyaya

inverted, perverse, contrary

vikalpa

doubt, indecision, hesitation, fancy, imagination, or day-dreaming

nidra

sleep, a state of emptiness

smrtayah

memory

They are caused by correct knowledge, illusion, delusion, sleep and memory.

These five-fold fluctuations or modifications of consciousness are based on real perception, or correct knowledge based on fact and proof; unreal or perverse perception, or illusion; fanciful or imaginary knowledge; knowledge based on sleep; and memory.

Consciousness has five qualitative types of intelligence: mudha (silly, stupid, or ignorant), ksipta (neglected or distracted), viksipta (agitated or scattered), ekagra (one-pointed or closely attentive) and niruddha (restrained or controlled). Since conscious intelligence is of five types, fluctuations are also classified into five kinds: correct knowledge, perverse perception, imagination, knowledge based on sleep, and memory. These five conscious states of intelligence and five classes of fluctuations may disturb the sadhaka, or help him to develop maturity of intelligence and attain emancipation.

Wrong perceptions (viparyaya) are gathered by the senses of perception and influence the mind to accept what is felt by them (as in the story of the six blind men and the elephant). Fanciful knowledge (vikalpa) causes the mind to live in an imaginary state without consideration of the facts. Memory (smrti) helps one to recollect experiences for right understanding. Sleep (nidra) has its own peculiarity. As a jar when empty is filled with air, so consciousness is empty in sleep. It exists in space, without a place, and is filled with dormancy. In sleep, one has a glimpse of a quiet state of mind, manolaya. This dormant state of mind is felt only on waking. Just as a flower when at rest is in its bud, so the consciousness rests in its bud, the conscience. Correct knowledge (pramana) is direct knowledge from the core of the being. It is intuitive, therefore pure, and beyond the field of intellect.

Direct knowledge leads man beyond the conscious state. This state of consciousness is called amanaskatva.

I.7 pratyaksa anumana agamah pramanani

pratyaksa
direct perception

anumana

inference

agamah

traditional sacred texts or scriptural references, a person who is a scriptural authority and whose word can be relied on

pramanani

kinds of proof

Correct knowledge is direct, inferred or proven as factual.

Correct knowledge is based on three kinds of proof: direct perception, correct inference or deduction, and testimony from authoritative sacred scriptures or experienced persons.

Initially, individual perception should be checked by reasoned logic, and then seen to correspond to traditional or scriptural wisdom. This process involves the enlightened intelligence, or buddhi.

In modern intellectual terms, we take buddhi to be a monolithic entity. This is unhelpful when trying to understand its true role in our lives and in our yogic practice. Let us first separate it from mind, in which brain, whose function is to receive sensory information, to think and to act, has its source. Thinking expresses itself in the form of electro-magnetic waves.

Intellect is more subtle than mind. It is concerned with the knowledge of facts and the reasoning faculty, and becomes discernible only through its inherent quality, intelligence, which is closer to consciousness than to the mind/thought process. Intelligence is inherent in every aspect of our being, from the physical to the blissful. It is non-manifest only in the atman/purusa, the core of being.

The quality of intelligence is inherent but dormant, so our first step must be to awaken it. The practice of Asana brings intelligence to the surface of the cellular body through stretching and to the physiological body by maintaining the pose. Once awakened, intelligence can reveal its dynamic aspect, its ability to discriminate. Then we strive for equal extensions to achieve a balanced, stable pose, measuring upper arm stretch against lower, right leg against left, inner against outer, etc. This precise, thorough process of measuring and discriminating is the apprenticeship, or culturing, of intelligence; it is pursued in the internal sheaths by pranayama, pratyahara and the further stages of yoga.

We can thus see that discrimination is a weighing process, belonging to the world of duality. When what is wrong is discarded, what is left must be correct.

When discrimination has been cultivated and intelligence is full and bright, ego and mind retreat, and citta becomes sharp and clear. But spiritual intelligence, which is true wisdom, dawns only when discrimination ends. Wisdom does not function in duality. It perceives only oneness. It does not discard the wrong, it sees only the right. (Patañjali calls this exalted intelligence, or vivekaja jñanam, III.55.) Wisdom is not mingled with nature, and is indeed unsuitable for the problems of life in a dualistic world. It would be of no use to a politician, for example, however high his motives, for he must choose and decide in the relative and temporal world. Spiritual wisdom does not decide, it knows. It is beyond time.

However, the progressive refinement of intelligence is essential in the search for freedom. The discriminating intellect should be used to ‘defuse’ the negative impact of memory, which links us in psychological time to the world of sensory pleasure and pain.

All matter, from rocks to human cells, contains its own inherent intelligence, but only man has the capacity to awaken, culture and finally transcend intelligence. Just as the totally pure citta, free from sensory entanglements, gravitates towards the atman, so, once intelligence has achieved the highest knowledge of nature, it is drawn inwards towards the soul (IV.26). Buddhi has the capacity to perceive itself: its innate virtue is honesty (I.49).

I.8 viparyayah mithyajñanam atadrupa pratistham

viparyayah

perverse, unreal

mitbyajñanam

illusory knowledge

atadrupa

not in its own form

pratistham

occupying, standing, seeing, beholding

Illusory or erroneous knowledge is based on non-fact or the non-real.

Perverse, illusory or wrong knowledge is caused by error or misconception, or by mistaking one thing for another. It is based on the distortion of reality. Wrong understanding and false conceptions generate wrong feelings and taint the consciousness. This hinders the sadhaka in his efforts to experience the seer, and may create a dual or split personality.

(See II.5.)

I.9 sabdajñana anupati vastusunyah vikalpah

sabdajñana

verbal knowledge

anupati

followed in sequence, pursued, phased in regular succession

vastusunyah

devoid of things, devoid of substance or meaning

vikalpah

imagination, fancy

Verbal knowledge devoid of substance is fancy or imagination.

Playing with fanciful thoughts or words, and living in one’s own world of thoughts and impressions which have no substantial basis, is vikalpa, a vague and uncertain knowledge which does not correspond to reality. In such a state of delusion, one is like the hare in the fable who imagined it had horns.

If vikalpa is brought to the level of factual knowledge by analysis, trial, error, and discrimination, it can awaken a thirst for correct or true knowledge, and delusion can be transformed into vision and discovery. Unless and until such a transformation takes place, knowledge based on imagination remains without substance.

[I.10 abhava pratyaya alambana vrttih nidra

abhava

non-existence, a feeling of non-being, absence of awareness

pratyaya

going towards conviction, trust, confidence, reliance, usage, knowledge, understanding, instrument, means, intellect

alambana

support, abode, dependence on a prop, mental exercise to bring before one’s thoughts the gross form of the eternal

vrttih

function, condition, thought-wave

nidra

sleep without dreams

Sleep is the non-deliberate absence of thought-waves or knowledge.

Dreamless sleep is an inert state of consciousness in which the sense of existence is not felt.

Sleep is a state in which all activities of thought and feeling come to an end. In sleep, the senses of perception rest in the mind, the mind in the consciousness and the consciousness in the being. Sleep is of three types. If one feels heavy and dull after sleep, that sleep has been tamasic. Disturbed sleep is rajasic. Sleep that brings lightness, brightness and freshness is sattvic.

In the states of correct knowledge, perverse knowledge, fanciful knowledge, and knowledge born of memory, one is awake. Mind and consciousness are drawn by the senses into contact with external objects: thus, one gains knowledge. In deep sleep, these four types of knowledge are absent: the senses of perception cease to function because their king, the mind, is at rest. This is abhava, a state of void, a feeling of emptiness.

The sadhaka, having experienced this negative state of void in sleep, tries to transform it into a positive state of mind while awake. Then he experiences that pure state in which the self is free from the knowledge of things seen, heard, acquired or felt through the senses and the mind. When he has learned to silence all the modulations of mind and consciousness, then he has reached kaivalya. He has sublimated the vrttis and become a master: his citta is submerged in the soul.

Sleep gives one a glimpse of the seer, but only indistinctly because the light of discrimination, viveka, is clouded. Simulation of this state of sleep when one is awake and aware is samadhi, wherein the seer witnesses his own form.

I.1.1 anubhuta visaya asammpramosah smrtsh

anubhuuta

perceived, apprehended, experienced, knowledge derived from direct perception, inference and comparison, verbal knowledge

visaya

an object, a sense of object, an affair, a transaction

asampramosah

not allowing to slip away, without stealing from anything else

smrtih

memory of a thing experienced, recollection of words or experiences

Memory is the unmodified recollection of words and experiences.

Memory is a modification of consciousness allowing us to recapture past experiences.

Memory is the collection of the modulations and impressions of correct knowledge, perverse knowledge, illusory knowledge and sleep. As perception changes, memory too may alter, but correctly used, it enables us to recall experiences in their true, pristine state. This ability is the foundation of the practice of discrimination.

The five properties of consciousness can be equated with the five fluctuations of consciousness: dullness with nidra, negligence with viparyaya, agitation with vikalpa, one-pointedness with smsrti and restraint or control with pramana.

I.12 abhyasa vairagyabhyaa tannirodhah

abhyasa

repeated practice

vairagyabhyam

freedom from desires, detachment, renunciation

tannirodhah

their restraint

Practice and detachment are the means to still the movements of consciousness.

The fluctuations of consciousness, painful or non-painful, described in 1.5 and 1.6, are to be controlled through repeated yogic practice. Mental strength must also be developed, to attain detachment and freedom from desires.

Study of the consciousness and stilling it is practice (abhyasa). Elsewhere (11.28) Patañjali has used another word: anusthana. Abhyasa conveys the sense of mechanical repetition, whereas anusthana implies devotion, dedication, a religious attitude. Repeated effort made with a thorough understanding of the art and philosophy of yoga and with perfect communion of body, mind and soul is not a mechanical practice but a religious and spiritual one.

Practice is the positive aspect of yoga; detachment or renunciation (vairagya) the negative. The two balance each other like day and night, inhalation and exhalation. Practice is the path of evolution; detachment and renunciation the path of involution. Practice is involved in all the eight limbs of yoga. Evolutionary practice is the onward march towards discovery of the Self, involving yama, niyama, Asana and pranayama. The involutionary path of renunciation involves pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi. This inward journey detaches the consciousness from external objects.

Patañjali’s practice represents the ha or ‘sun’ aspect, and renunciation the tha or ‘moon’ aspect of hatha yoga. In hatha yoga, ha represents the life-force and tha, the consciousness. Ha also represents the very being – the seer, while tha is the reflected light of the seer, representing citta. Through Hathay-oga these two forces are blended, and then merged in the seer.

To be adept in yoga, yama and niyama must be observed carefully throughout the yogic sadhana. This is abhyasa. The discarding of ideas and actions which obstruct progress in sadhana is vairagya.

As we know, consciousness becomes involved with the objects seen, and identifies with them, drawing the seer with it. Then the seer becomes subordinate to the oscillating mind. The eight aspects of yoga, described in 11.29, are given to us as a means to stop the wavering of the intelligence and to learn correct understanding. Although the first four relate to practice and the others to renunciation, practice and renunciation are interdependent and equally important. Without restraint, the forces generated by practice would spin out of control and could destroy the sadhaka. At the higher levels, vairagya without abhyasa could lead to stagnation and inner decay. The first four aspects are considered a building up process, and the last four one of inner consolidation. Once our initial tamasic nature moves towards a dynamic state, restraint becomes necessary for our own inner security.

Vairagya is a practice through which the sadhaka learns to be free from desires and passions and to cultivate non-attachment to things which hinder his pursuit of union with the soul.

The disciplines which are to be followed are explained in the succeeding sutras.

(For yogic disciplines see 11.29–32, 11.35–53.)

I.13 tatra sthitau yatnah abhyasah

tatra

of these, under these circumstances, in that case

sthitau

as regards steadiness, as regards perfect restraint

yatnah

continuous effort

abhyasah

practice

Practice is the steadfast effort to still these fluctuations.

Practice is the effort to still the fluctuations in the consciousness and then to move towards silencing it: to attain a constant, steady, tranquil state of mind.

In order to free the mind from fluctuations and oscillations and to reach a state of steadiness, the practitioner is advised to practise intensely all the yogic principles, from yama to dhyana. These embrace all disciplines: moral, ethical, physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual. (For the application of the mind to the practice, see 1.20.)

I.14 sa tu dirghakala nairantarya satkara asevitah asevitah drnhabhamah

sa

this

tu

and

dirghakala

for a long time

nairantarya

without interruption, continuous

satkara

dedication, devotion

Asevitah

zealously practised, performed assiduously

drnhabhumih

of firm ground, firmly rooted, well fixed

Long, uninterrupted, alert practice is the firm foundation for restraining the fluctuations.

When the effort is continued in accordance with yogic principles consistently and for a long time, with earnestness, attention, application and devotion, the yogic foundation is firmly established.

Profound wisdom is gained through steady, dedicated, attentive practice, and non-attachment through applied restraint. However, success may inflate the sadhaka’s ego, and he should be careful not to become a victim of intellectual pride which may drag him away from enlightenment. If this happens, he should re-establish his practice by taking guidance from a competent master, or through his own discrimination, so that humility replaces pride and spiritual wisdom dawns. This is correct practice.

I.15 drsta anusravika visaya vitrstasya vasikarasamjña vairagyam

drsta

perceptible, visible

Anusravika

heard or listening, resting on the Vedas or on tradition according to oral testimony

visaya

a thing, an object of enjoyment, matter

vitrstasya

freedom from desire, contentment

vasikara

subjugation, supremacy, bringing under control

samjña

consciousness, intellect, understanding

vairagyam

absence of worldly desires and passions, dispassion, detachment, indifference to the world, renunciation

Renunciation is the practice of detachment from desires.

When non-attachment and detachment are learned there is no craving for objects seen or unseen, words heard or unheard. Then the seer remains unmoved by temptations. This is the sign of mastery in the art of renunciation.

Non-attachment and detachment must be learned through willpower. They consist of learning to be free from cravings, not only for worldly, but also heavenly pleasures. Citta is taught to be unmoved by thoughts of desire and passion, and to remain in a state of pure consciousness, devoid of all objects and free even from the qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas.

The mind is considered by the sages to be the eleventh sense. The eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin are the five senses of perception. The arms, legs, mouth, generative and excretory organs are the five organs of action. These are the external senses: the mind is an internal sense organ.

There are five states in vairagya.

Disengaging the senses from enjoyment of their objects, and controlling them, is yatamana. As it is not possible to control all the senses at once, one should attempt to control them one by one to achieve mastery over them all.

By thoughtful control, one burns away the desires which obstruct citta’s movement towards the soul. This is vyatireka.

When the five senses of perception and five organs of action have been weaned away from contact with objects, the feeblest desires remain in a causal state and are felt only in the mind: this is ekendriya. The mind wants to play a dual role: to fulfil the desires of the senses, and also to experience Self-Realization. Once the senses have been silenced, the mind moves with one-pointed effort towards Soul Realization.

Vasikara is attained when one has overcome all longings, and developed indifference to all types of attachment, non-attachment and detachment (see 1.40). All eleven senses have been subjugated.

From these develops paravairagya, the highest form of renunciation: it is free from the qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas. On attaining this state, the sadhaka ceases to be concerned with himself, or with others who remain caught in the web of pleasure (see Table 2 and 11.19).

Often we come across renounced persons who get caught in the pleasures and comforts of life and neglect their sadhana. We should learn from such examples and guard ourselves so that we develop firmness in our sadhana.

A bird cannot fly with one wing. It needs two wings to fly. To reach the highest spiritual goal, the two wings of yoga, abhyasa and vairagya are essential.

I.16 tatparara purusakhyateh gunavaitrstyam

tatparara

that highest, that most excellent, the ultimate, the best, the purest, the supreme

purusakhyateh

the highest knowledge of the soul, perception of the soul

gunavaitrstyam

indifference to the qualities of nature, inertia or dormancy (tamas), passion or vibrance (rajas) and luminosity or serenity (sattva)

The ultimate renunciation is when one transcends the qualities of nature and perceives the soul.

Table 2: Stages of vairagya (detachment) and the involution of prakrti

The purest form of renunciation is when one is free from the qualities of nature. One realizes the soul at once. Clear intelligence of head and heart leads to this.

If through abhyasa we activate and purify our energy, through vairagya we disentangle ourselves from involvement in even the subtlest manifestations of the phenomenal world. The creation of energy alone, without control or restraint, cannot lead to freedom. To understand the five levels of vairagya, one should refer to the model of nature’s evolution described in the introduction, in the section on samadhi pada. Here, we see the unfolding of nature from its noumenal (alinga) state into the linga state, through mahat; then from the non-specific (avisesa) phenomena including ahamara, ego or ‘I consciousness’ to the manifest (visesa) expressions of nature which form the basis of our experience of everyday reality (see 11.19). The reverse or involutionary process, which is the path of yoga, can be seen as the ascension of a ladder. Abbyasa gives us the necessary impetus for the ascent; by vairagya we draw up the ladder behind us.

The lower rungs of renunciation are attempted by anyone who tries to disentangle himself from such a habit as smoking or drinking coffee. We cut down, then we stop, but the desire persists in the mind. When that mental desire has faded away, years later, our body cells may spontaneously rekindle attachment. Later still, we may find we become attached to the idea of ourselves as non-drinkers of coffee, so the ego is still attached to the idea of coffee even though it is now ‘non-coffee’. This is self-conscious virtue. Gradually we may become totally indifferent to coffee, but coffee nevertheless still exists in our mind.

This sutra relates to the ultimate freedom achieved through paravairagya: here phenomenal nature ceases to exist for us, as the gunas are transcended, drawn back into their noumenal root. By transcending the gunas, we unlock that which binds us to nature. When this is achieved in all our involvements, the soul is fully perceived.

The consciousness has now, by the power of wisdom, acquired everything that had to be acquired, and discarded everything that had to be discarded. The sadhaka is free from all bondage; there is no feeling of birth and death. Kaivalya is attained. This is the effect of the twin disciplines of abbyasa and vairagya, through which the sadhaka becomes wise and free, untainted by the influence of citta.

In IV. 29 the word prasastankhyana, meaning ‘highest knowledge’, has been used. Again in sutra IV. 31, there is the expression sarvavarata malapetasya which means ‘when all obscuring impurities are destroyed totally’. Then follows purusakhyati signifying ‘perception of the soul’.

(In sutras I.17–51 Patañjali speaks of samadhi.) (See III.51 and IV.34.)

I.17 vitarka vicara ananda asmitarupa anugamat samprajñatah

vitarka

analytical thinking or analytical study, argument, inference, conjecture

vicara

reason, meditation, insight, perfect intelligence where all logic comes to an end

ananda

elation, bliss, felicity

asmitarupa

consciousness of being one with oneself

anugamat

by accompanying, by following, comprehending, grasping

samprajñatah

distinguish, know actually, know accurately

Practice and detachment develop four types of samadhi: self-analysis, synthesis, bliss, and the experience of pure being.

Through practice and detachment, four types of awareness develop. Absorption of the consciousness, achieved through engrossment in conjecture, inference and analytical study; synthesis, consideration and discrimination; bliss or elation; and a state of pure being, constitute samprajñata samadhi.

Here a distinction is recognized between the seer and the seen. Samprajñata samadhi consists of vitarka, engrossment in analysis, vicara, engrossment in reasoning, ananda, experiencing a state of bliss, and asmita, experiencing the state of ‘I’.

Vitarka is an act of involvement by deliberate thinking and study, which leads to the final point or root cause. It is an attempt to distinguish the cause from the effect, a process of judicious experimental research from the gross to the subtle. Intellectual analysis, vitarka samprajñata, being a function of the brain, produces relative and conditioned knowledge. It is gross and lacks refinement. It is further divided into deliberation, savitarka and non-deliberation, nirvitarka.

Vicara means differentiating knowledge. It is a process of investigation, reflection and consideration through which the wandering conjectural brain is stilled and the sadhaka develops mental depth, acuteness, refinement and subtlety. Vicara too is divided into reasoning, savicara and non-reasoning, nirvicara.

As the growing body of experience brings maturity, fulfilment is reached and a state of bliss, ananda, ensues, freeing the sadhaka from the mechanism of study, investigation and fulfilment and leading him to dwell in the self alone. This state is called asmita rupa samprajñata samadhi. Thus, all six gradations of sablja samadhi (samadhi with support or seed) – savitarka, nirvitarka, savicara, nirvicara, ananda and asmita – are explained.

There is a seventh stage of samadhi, virama pratyaya, so called asarh-prajñata samadhi, and an eighth, called dharma megha or nirbtja samadhi.

As external objects are susceptible to change, deliberation may not be pure. One must go from the periphery to the source. Vicara is beyond vitarka, ananda is beyond vitarka and vicara, and asmita is beyond vitarka, vicara and ananda. This is the gradual progress from the gross body towards the subtle mind, and from the subtle mind towards the source, the core of being.

Savitarka and nirvitarka samadhi belong to the function of the brain, and are attained by contemplation on gross elements and objects knowable through the senses. Savicara and nirvicara samadhi belong to the realm of the mind and are attained by contemplation of subtle elements, and ananda belongs to the realm of mature intelligence. ananda must be attributed not to the senses but to pure wisdom. Contemplation by the self of the self brings one close to purusa. Here, the self is devoid of ego.

It is said that the front of the brain is the analytical part (savitarka), while the back of the brain is the old, reasoning area (savicara). The base of the brain is the seat of ananda, and the crown of the head of the individual self, asmita. Sabija samadhi is achieved by drawing these four facets of the brain towards its stem.

When this synchronization has been achieved, a transitory state of quietness, manolaya, is experienced. Then, from the stem of the brain, consciousness is made to descend towards the source mind, the seat of the heart. Here it merges into a mindless, beginningless, endless state of being: amanaskatva, or nirbija samadhi (samadhi without seed or support). It is the conquest of the spirit.

In between sabija and nirbija samadhis, Patañtjali describes an intervening state, virama pratyaya, which others call asamprajñata samadhi. It is a spiritual plateau (manolaya), a transitory state or a resting place before one plunges into nirbija samadhi.

(See 11.18, 19, 21; 111.45 and 48.)

Through practice and renunciation each and every part of man – the skin, the cells, the breath, the movements of thought, intelligence and reason become acquainted with the self. This is samprajñata samadhi. The sadhaka’s intelligence spreads evenly within and around his body, like the surface of a lake without ripples. Then he sees things clearly. In this samprajñata samadhi or contemplation, the disparity between the seer and the seen remains.

Take, for example, the performance of an Asana, or movements of breath in pranayama. In the beginning, these are done at a physical level. As understanding deepens, the body is penetrated internally, its movements are connected with the intelligence, and the Asana is grasped as a single unit in all directions: front to back, top to bottom, side to side. It is absorbed and held by the body’s intelligence for the soul to perceive. One learns that one’s body is the bow, the Asana is the arrow, and the target is the soul. When the Asana is perfected, the target is struck: the field and the knower of the field are united. The logic and reasoning of the Asana are fulfilled. The sadhaka, having lost the consciousness of the Asana and of his body, is one with himself. His Asana, his breath, his effort and his very being are one with the millions of cells in his body. He has reached sasmita, the auspicious state of asmita.

Patañjali generally addresses us at several levels at once, so it is not unreasonable to explain vitarka, vicara, ananda and asmita in relation to Asana.

When we begin to practise Asana, our method is largely hit or miss, ‘let me try this; let me try that’. It is a process of trial and error based on conjecture. That is the nature of vitarka. It is adventurous rather than calculating but it does not forget its errors; we then evolve to the stage we may call vicara, in which a body of experience has been built up from investigation, mature consideration and dawning discrimination. As our Asanas ripen, we reach a stage when skin-consciousness moves towards the centre of being, and the centre radiates towards the periphery. Movement is at once centripetal and centrifugal. This integrity brings bliss: ananda. Finally, when the conscious mechanism by which we consider and perform Asana comes to an end, the process reaches a resting point. The Asana then rests only on the inner self which is in poise: the only support is asmita.

I.18 viramapratyaya abhyasapurvah samskarasesah anyah

virama

rest, repose, pause

pratyaya

going towards, firm conviction, reliance, confidence, usage, practice, a cause, instrument, means, device

abhyasa

practice

purvah

before, old, previous, foregoing

samskarasesah

balance of subliminal impressions

anyah

other, another, different

The void arising in these experiences is another samadhi. Hidden impressions lie dormant, but spring up during moments of awareness, creating fluctuations and disturbing the purity of the consciousness.

As mentioned earlier, Patañjali indicates another state of samadhi in between sabija samadhi and nirbija samadhi, but does not name it. It is experienced with the cessation of all functions of the brain, leaving behind only the residual merits, or samskaras, of good practices. In this state one is free from passions, desires and appetites.

The word used for this state is virama pratyaya. In it the sadhaka rests in a highly evolved state in which the intelligence is still. The nearest we come to virama pratyaya in ordinary experience are those few moments before falling asleep, when the intellect relaxes its hold on thoughts and objects and the mind becomes silent, a state reminiscent of manolaya. Like a river joining the sea, the mind is dissolving into the self. We are given a momentary glimpse of the seer, abiding in the self. The moment one loses the feeling of ‘I’, one is in this state of virama pratyaya, which is neither negative nor positive. It is a state of suspended animation in the consciousness. Patañjali calls this state a different type of samadhi (anyah). It is not deliberate but natural.

In deliberate or samprajñata samadhi, the intelligence dissolves but the sense of self remains. The samskaras of good practices remain and all other fluctuations cease. This state becomes a plateau, from which the aspirant may climb further up the spiritual ladder. As it is only a transitional state, one must take care that stagnation does not set in: it should not be taken as the goal. One should then, in fact, intensify one’s sadhana to reach the state of the absolute, nirbija samadhi. (For nirbija samadhi, see I.50–51.)

In the next sutra, it is said that those who remain in virama pratyaya not only conquer the elements of nature but merge in them, while others live without a physical body as angels or devatas. We have the examples of Ramakrsna Paramahamsa, Ramana Maharsi and sri Aurobindo, who remained in that state for a long period without the awareness of their bodies, but emerged later to reach nirbija samadhi. Such sadhakas are called prakrtilayas (laya = merged in nature) or videhins (existing without a body). Other yogis who have reached a certain level of evolution in their search are caught at a crossroads, feeling that this is the end of their journey. If they stay there and do not attempt to go further in the practice of yoga, they fall from the grace of yoga. Lord Krsna calls such aspirants yoga bhrastas. In the Bhagavad Gita (vi.41–43), he says that ‘those yogis who have fallen deliberately from the grace of yoga are reborn in the houses of the pure and prosperous, where they live a contented life in a righteous way for many years; while the others, who have undeliberately fallen, are reborn into the families of poor yogis who are endowed with wisdom. Then they strive again for perfection, beginning from the state which they had reached in the previous life’. (See also IV. 1–2.)

Virama pratyaya is a precarious state. It may bind the sadhaka forever, or it may uplift him. Patañjali advises in I.20 that those who have reached virama pratyaya should not stop there but should redouble their efforts with faith and courage, memory and contemplative awareness.

sri Vyasa, the first commentator on Patañjali, calls this redoubled effort upaya pratyaya (upaya is the means by which one reaches one’s aim, a stratagem). Through upaya pratyaya the evolved souls mentioned above reached nirbija samadhi.

Patañjali clearly uses the word samprajñata for the state of samadhi which is reached through vitarka, vicara, ananda, and asmita. In this sutra, he explains the deliberate maintenance of a thought-free state of consciousness. Hence, here he has not given a precise term, but uses the expression anyah, meaning ‘another’, or a different type of samadhi and not asamprajñata samadhi, as conveyed by many commentators.

I.19 bhavapratyayah videha prakrtilayanam

bhava

arising or produced from, originating in, state of being, existence, origin, true condition, real disposition

pratyayah

going towards, firm conviction, usage, means, device

videha

incorporeal, without material existence but an existence in contemplation of a law (the law of nature and of the spirit)

prakrtilayanam

merged in nature

In this state, one may experience bodilessness, or become merged in nature. This may lead to isolation or to a state of loneliness.

In this samadhi, which is poised between sabija and nirbija samadhi, the sadhaka is freed from all fluctuations, but subliminal impressions, samskaras, spring to life the moment he comes out of that state. Some evolved entities move without a body, as spirits and angels, while others become absorbed in the elements of nature, prakrti. Caught in the web of bodiless feeling, or merging in nature, they forget to climb to the topmost rung of the spiritual ladder, and fail to reach nirbija samadhi. The sadhaka, having reached a state of isolation but not emancipation, must come out of it if he is not to lose the path of kaivalya.

A man who performs trance underground without ventilation becomes one with the earth. A person submerged in water becomes one with water. He is a prakrtilayan: one with the elements. One whose spirit moves without a body is a videhin. When the prakrtilayan is separated from earth or water, or the videhin comes in contact with his own body, subliminal impressions surface and create fluctuations in the mind (see III.44). This experience is the conquest of the principles or tattvas of nature: prakrtijaya.

In I.10, Patañjali defines sleep as a state in which all thoughts and feelings are temporarily suspended, and the senses, mind, intellect and consciousness rest in the being. In dreamless sleep, there is absence of everything. If an average person, when awake, recollects the state of dreamless sleep, he glimpses a non-physical state of existence (videha) and also the state of merging in nature (prakrtilaya). In sleep, these two phases remain unconscious until one wakes, whereas evolved souls in samadhi (as described in I.18) experience them consciously. Sleep is a natural condition of consciousness; samadhi is a superconscious state.

In sleep, everything is inert, tamasic; in samadhi everything is luminous, untinged by the gunas.

I.20 sraddha virya smrti samadhiprajña purvakah itaresam

sraddha

trust which comes from revelation, faith, confidence, reverence

virya

vigour, physical and moral strength, mental power, energy, valour

smrti

memory, recollection

samadhi

profound meditation, supreme devotion, identification of the contemplator with the subject of contemplation, perfect absorption of thoughts

prajña

awareness of real knowledge acquired through intense contemplation

purvakah

previous, prior, first

itaresam

another, rest, different from, whereas

Practice must be pursued with trust, confidence, vigour, keen memory and power of absorption to break this spiritual complacency.

This sutra guides those advanced souls who have attained a certain level in samadhi, to intensify their sadhana, with redoubled confidence, power, awareness and devotion.

Sage Vyasa calls this state upaya pratyaya.

Highly evolved souls have the power to discriminate between isolation and emancipation. They are neither elated by their conquest of the elements nor delighted at their ability to move freely without their bodies. They adopt new means to intensify their practice with faith and vigour, and use memory as a guide to leap forward with wisdom, total absorption, awareness and attention.

It is said in the puranas that one Jada Bharata, having reached a state of samadhi became cold and unemotional. This is exactly what Patañjali means when he speaks of that intermediate state of samadhi, as anyah or ‘different’. Jada Bharata took three lives to come out of that state and then to proceed towards nirbija samadhi.

Jana Bharata’s father was a rajarsi by the name of Rsabha, who was a king of Bharata; his mother, Jayavantyambika was a pious lady. Being the son of such noble hearts, he was more inclined towards spiritual knowledge than to ruling the country.

He therefore made up his mind to renounce the kingdom and retired to the forest. One day, while he was bathing in a river, a pregnant doe came to drink. Frightened by a thunderous sound, it gave birth to a fawn and died. Jana Bharata took pity on the fawn, carried it to the hermitage and began tending it. He was so attached to it, that even at his last breath, he had only that deer in this thoughts. Hence, he was reborn as a deer but his previous sadhana remained as subliminal impressions. Later, he was reborn as a human being in the house of a realized soul, angirasa by name. He developed indifference to life and lived like a madman.

One day the king of the country wanted to perform a human sacrifice for Goddess Kalimata. He commanded his attendants to bring a human being for the sacrifice. With great difficulty, they found a person who, however, escaped at the appointed time. The king, in rage, sent his attendants to find another person. This time they chanced upon Jada Bharata, who was moving about in the forest, unconcerned with life. He was brought for the sacrifice. As the king was about to kill him, Goddess Kalimata appeared in her real form, destroyed the king and his attendants and set Jada Bharata free.

As a wandering sage, he moved to Sind. The king of the country wanted to sit at the feet of sage Kapila to learn spiritual knowledge. One day, while he was travelling in a palanquin, his carriers spotted Jada Bharata and called him for help. He unhesitatingly consented to oblige, but moved in such a way as to disturb the rhythm of the others. They began scolding him, to which he replied that their abuses could not touch his Self as they were meant for his body. Hearing this, the king was wonderstruck; he climbed down and humbly prostrated before the sage asking his forgiveness. With a serene state of mind, Jada Bharata accepted the king’s humble request and moved on to continue his sadhana. He had taken three lives to resume his sadhana from where he had left it.

This story aptly illustrates how the five dynamic qualities of faith, tenacity, perfect memory, absorption and awareness are necessary to hold on to what one has attained and to break out of that spiritual isolation which is not freedom.

Buddha says, in the Dhammapada, that all sorrows can be conquered through good conduct, reverential faith, enthusiasm, remembrance, concentration and right knowledge.

sraddha should not be understood simply as faith. It also conveys mental and intellectual firmness. (The next word, virya, stands for valour and power in the sense of physical and nervine strength.) Interestingly, Patañjali’s first use of the word sraddha is explicitly to encourage the sadhaka to intensify his sadhana in order to reach the highest goal.

The natural trust of the aspirant is confirmed by revelation, and transformed into the faith which permeates the consciousness of practitioners in any field of art, science and philosophy. If trust is instinctive, faith is intuitional.

After describing the experience of unbiased bliss and spiritual aura in I.17–19, Patañjali here expresses this felt trust as sraddha.

I.21 tivrasamveganam asannah

tivra

vehement, intense, severe, sharp, acute, supreme, poignant

samveganam

those who are quick, cheerful (samvega is a technical word like samyama, see III.4)

asannah

drawn near, approached, near in time, place or number

The goal is near for those who are supremely vigorous and intense in practice.

Samadhi is within reach for him who is honest and pure at heart, enthusiastic, intense and supremely energetic. He quickly reaches the highest goal of yoga, aided also by his residual accumulated virtues. However, sometimes even an intense aspirant may become mild or average, slow or moderate, in his practice.

In the siva Samhita, chapter v.16, aspirants are categorized as feeble (mrdu), moderate (madhyama), sharp in understanding and vigorous (adhimatra), and having colossal energy and supreme enthusiasm (adhimatratama).

I.22 mrdu madhya adhimatratvat tatah api visesah

mrdu

soft, feeble, mild, fickle

madhya

middle, intermediate, moderate, average

adhimatratvat

ardent, steady minded, keen

tatah

thence, further

api

also

visesah

differentiation

There are differences between those who are mild, average and keen in their practices.

Table 3: Levels of sadhakas and types of awareness

Sadhakas are of different levels of eagerness and intensity. For them, the goal is time-bound, depending on their level.

This sutra further amplifies the distinction between yogis whose practices are feeble, average or keen, and who progress according to the level of their practice.

These types can be further subdivided. For example, a keen sadhaka may be feebly, moderately or intensely keen. Similar subdivisions can be made of the average and feeble types. The goal of yoga is near or far according to one’s eagerness and one’s efforts.

This sutra refers to the different aptitudes of yogic practitioners. But if sutras I.14–22 are examined as a group, it is clear that they refer to nine types of yogis who are highly evolved and whose standards of intelligence are far above ordinary human standards. They are of an ascending order of intensity. (See Table 3.)

Paravairagya (supreme detachment) is for those who are clear of head and pure of heart, heroic and supremely energetic (adhimatrataman or tivra samvegin). For these, the goal is at hand; for others, it is time-bound.

I.23 Isvara pranidhanat va

Isvara

the Lord, God, and Universal Soul

pranidbanat

by profound religious meditation, contemplation, prayer, renunciation of the fruits of actions

va

or

Or, the citta may be restrained by profound meditation upon God and total surrender to Him.

To contemplate on God, to surrender one’s self to Him, is to bring everything face to face with God. Pranidhana is the surrender of everything: one’s ego, all good and virtuous actions, pains and pleasures, joys and sorrows, elations and miseries to the Universal Soul. Through surrender the aspirant’s ego is effaced, and the grace of the Lord pours down upon him like torrential rain.

I.24 klesa karma vipaka asayaih aparamrstah purusavisesah Isvarah

klesa

affliction, pain, distress, pain from disease

karma

act, action, performance

vipaka

ripe, mature, result

Asayaih

seat, abode, reservoir

aparamrstah

untouched, unaffected, in no way connected

purusavisesah

a special person, a distinct purusa, or being

Isvarah

God

God is the Supreme Being, totally free from conflicts, unaffected by actions and untouched by cause and effect.

God is a special, unique Entity (purusa), who is eternally free from afflictions and unaffected by actions and their reactions, or by their residue.

Isvara is the Supreme Soul, the Lord of all and master of everything. He is untouched by klesas (afflictions), unaffected by the fruits of actions, abiding undisturbed in His own Being. He is eternally free and always sovereign (see 11.3 for klesas).

Human beings experience pain before reaching emancipation, but God is always detached from pain and pleasure, sorrow and joy, dejection and elation. God is ever free, but man has to wash away all his subliminal impressions before realizing freedom (see III.36).

There is a difference between purusa (individual soul) and purusa visesa (Universal Soul). As God is distinct from the individual soul, He is called Isvara.

I.25 tarra niratisayam sarvajiñabijam

tatra

therein, in Him

niratisayam

matchless, unsurpassed, unrivalled

sarvajña

all knowing, omniscient, all wise

bijam

a seed, source, cause, origin, beginning

God is the unexcelled seed of all knowledge.

In Him abides the unrivalled, matchless source of all knowledge. He is the seed of omniscience, omnipresence and omnipotence.

In God rests all creation. He is eternal and one. He is Himself the seed of all knowledge, the seed of omniscience, whereas the yogi attains infinite knowledge but not the seed of that knowledge (see III.50 and IV.31).

I.26 sa esah purvesam api guruh kalena anavacchedat

sa

that

esah

Purusa or God

purvesam

first, foremost

api

also, too, besides, in addition to

guruh

master, preceptor

kalena

time

anavacchedat

unbounded, unlimited, uninterrupted, undefined, continuous

God is the first, foremost and absolute guru, unconditioned by time.

This spiritual Purusa, the Supreme Spirit, is the first and foremost teacher, neither bound nor conditioned by place, space or time. He is all and all is He.

I.27 tasya vacakah pranavah

tasya

Him

vacakah

connoting, denoting, signifying, sign, indicating

pranavah

the sacred syllable Aum

He is represented by the sacred syllable Aum, called pranava.

He is identified with the sacred syllable Aum. He is represented in AUM.

Aum is considered to be the symbol of divinity. It is a sacred mantra, and is to be repeated constantly. AUM is called pranava, which stands for praise of the divine and fulfilment of divinity.

Sound is vibration, which, as modern science tells us, is at the source of all creation. God is beyond vibration, but vibration, being the subtlest form of His creation, is the nearest we can get to Him in the physical world. So we take it as His symbol.

The impersonal essence and source of all being is known as hiranya garbha (golden womb). It is also known as Brahman, who is within each heart. AUM is the bow and the self is the arrow. With deep concentration, the aspirant has to hit the target, Brahman, so that the individual self and the Universal Soul become one.

Aum is composed of three syllables, a, u, m. The word is written thus: . Without these three sounds, no words can begin, resound or end in any language. These three sounds are universal: they are the seed (bija) of all words.

The letters a, u, m symbolize speech (vak), mind (manas), and breath of life (Prana). As leaves are held together by a twig, all speech is held together by AUM. AUM is the everlasting spirit, a symbol of serenity, divinity, majestic power, omnipotence and universality.

The three letters of AUM represent the three genders, the three gunas, the three aspects of time: past, present and future, and the three gurus: the mother, the father and the preceptor.

They also represent the triad of divinity: Brahma the creator, Visnu the sustainer, and Siva the destroyer, of the Universe.

Aum as a whole stands for the realization that liberates the human spirit from the confines of body, mind, intellect and ego. By meditating upon AUM, the sadhaka remains steady, pure and faithful. He becomes a great soul (mahatma). He finds the presence of the Supreme Spirit within, and earns the peace which is free from fear, dissolution and death.

(For further details on AUM see Light on Yoga and Light on pranayama (HarperCollinsPublishers).)

I.28 tajjapah tadarthabhavanam

tat

that (AUM)

japah

muttering in an undertone, whispering, repeating

tadarthabha
vanam

its aim, its purpose, its meaning with feeling, its identification

The mantra AUM is to be repeated constantly, with feeling, realizing its full significance.

Constant, reverential repetition of the pranava AUM, with contemplation on its meaning and the feeling it evokes, helps the seer to reach the highest state in yoga.

Words, meaning and feeling are interwoven. As words are eternal, so are meaning and feeling. Meaning and feeling change according to one’s intellectual calibre and understanding. This sutra conveys the devotional aspects of the seed mantra AUM.

Japa is repetition of the mantra, with reverence and realization of its meaning. Practice of japa unites the perceiver, the instruments of perception, and the perceived: God. The mantra AUM is considered to be sabda Brahman (Word of God, or Universal Sound) to be known with the organs of perception and action, mind, intelligence and consciousness (see I.23, 41 and II.1).

I.29 tatah pratyakcetana adhigamah api antaraya abhavah ca

tatah

then

pratyakcetana

individual soul, introspective mind

adhigamah

to find, discover, accomplish, acquire mastery

api

also, too

antaraya

intervention, interference, impediment, hindrance, obstacle

abhavah

absence

ca

and

Meditation on God with the repetition of AUM removes obstacles to the mastery of the inner self.

The repetition of the pranava mantra with feeling and understanding of its meaning leads to the discovery of the Self, and helps to remove impediments to Self-Realization (for impediments, see I.30 and 31).

When experience, the instruments of experience and the object experienced are interwoven, the soul manifests itself without the intervention of any impediments.

I.30 vyadhi styana samsaya pramada alasya avirati bhrantidarsana alabdhabhumikatva anavasthitatvani cittaviksepah te antarayah

vyadhi

disease

styana

lack of perseverance, lack of interest, sluggishness, mental laziness

samsaya

doubt, indecision

pramada

intoxication, carelessness, negligence, inattentiveness, inadvertence

alasya

idleness, physical laziness

avirati

incontinence, lacking in moderation or control, sensual gratification

bhrantidarsana

living under illusion, mistaken notion

alabdhabhumikatva

missing the point, inability to hold on to what is achieved, disappointment in one’s desired object

anavasthitatvani

an unsettled state, inability to maintain the achieved progress

cittaviksepah

a scattered or oscillating mind causing distraction in the consciousness

te

these

antarayah

obstacles, impediments

These obstacles are disease, inertia, doubt, heedlessness, laziness, indiscipline of the senses, erroneous views, lack of perseverance, and backsliding.

This sutra describes the nine obstacles or impediments which obstruct progress and distract the aspirant’s consciousness.

These obstacles can be divided into physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual:

In I.29, Patañjali indicates that Self-Realization is possible only when consciousness is free from impediments.

I.31 duhkha daurmanasya angamejayatva svasaprasvasah viksepa sahabhuvah

duhkha

sorrow, pain, grief, distress, unhappiness

daurmanasya

mental pain, affliction, dejection, despair

angamejayatva

unsteadiness of the body

svasaprasvasah

inspiration and expiration

viksepa

scattered, causing distraction

sahabhuvah

existing at the same time, side by side, accompanying, concurrent

Sorrow, despair, unsteadiness of the body and irregular breathing further distract the citta.

Besides the obstacles mentioned in I.30, there are four more causes of distraction: sorrow, despair or evil disposition, tremor of the body and irregular or laboured breathing. (Possibly, laboured breathing shakes the body, creating instability, which in turn brings mental distress.) These cause further distractions which agitate the mind and consciousness.

These impediments are of three types: self-inflicted (adhyatmika), imbalances of elements in the body (adhibhautika) and problems brought about by fate, e.g. genetic defects (adhidaivika). They need to be fought and conquered through yogic disciplines (see I.6; II.3, 17, 34).

I.32 tarpratisedhartham ekatattva abhyasah

tatpratisedhartham

for their prevention

eka

one, single

tattva

a real state, reality, truth, essential nature, the very essence, a principle, a doctrine

abhyasah

practice

Adherence to single-minded effort prevents these impediments.

To remove the thirteen impediments and prevent their recurrence, several specific methods have been described.

Though most commentators have concluded that ekatattva is devotion and surrender to God, it is beyond the average person’s comprehension that surrender to God is the cure for all maladies. If surrender to God were possible for everyone, and could by itself eradicate all impediments, Patañjali need not have elaborated on all the other means of reaching the divine state. Only a few outstanding personalities like Ramana Maharsi, Sri Ramakrsna Paramahamsa, Mahatma Gandhi, Jada Bharata and the great acaryas of the past could surrender wholeheartedly to God, as they were angels in human form, highly evolved souls whose subliminal impressions from previous lives enabled them to assume their final human form in order to clear up the residues.

But total surrender to God is beyond the abilities of most ordinary men and women, who are still caught up in pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow, success and failure. Meditation undoubtedly helps to minimize the mental agitations of such persons, but to conquer all the obstacles to Self-Realization, all the eight stages of yoga must be followed.

Only when body, mind and intelligence are fully purified is it possible to surrender totally to God, without expecting any return. This is a surrender of the highest order, beyond the capacity of the average individual.

I.33 maitri karuna mudina upeksanam sukha duhkha punya apunya visayanam bhavanatah cittaprasadanam

maitri

friendliness

karuna

compassion, mercy

mudina

gladness, joy

upeksanam

to be indifferent and apathetic, to look at things without interest

sukha

happiness

duhkha

sorrow

punya

virtue

apunya

vice

visayanam

regarding an object, concerning a thing

bhavanatah

conception, remembrance, infusion, recollection, thoughtfulness

cittaprasadanam

graceful diffusion of the consciousness, favourable disposition

Through cultivation of friendliness, compassion, joy, and indifference to pleasure and pain, virtue and vice respectively, the consciousness becomes favourably disposed, serene and benevolent.

These qualities keep the mind in a state of well-being. Patañjali here lays the groundwork for our journey towards Self-Realization. Citta viksepa is a current of disturbed thoughts running like a river. In citta prasadana, graceful diffusion, the turbulent flow is dammed up and consciousness diffuses calmly like a lake.

If the citta is caught in the web of the senses, and the sadhaka fails to cultivate friendliness, compassion, delight and equanimity, sorrow and unhappiness arise in his heart. This sutra asks us to rejoice with the happy, to be compassionate to the sorrowful, friendly to the virtuous, and indifferent to those who continue to live in vice despite attempts to change them. This mental adjustment builds social as well as individual health. Besides cultivating these qualities, one should follow the social virtues of yama (11.30) for the well-being of society as a whole. This approach to life keeps the mind of the sadhaka serene and pure.

I.34 pracchardana vidharanabhyam va Pranasya

pracchardana

emitting, sending forth, discharging, expelling, exhalation

vidharanabhyam

restraining, maintaining, supporting, executing

va

or, an option, also the power of choosing correctly, selection, alternatively

Pranasya

of breath

Or, by maintaining the pensive state felt at the time of soft and steady exhalation and during passive retention after exhalation.

Another possibility of diffusing consciousness is the attainment of that serene state by retention of the breath after exhalation.

In this and the following five sutras (1:34–39) several alternative methods of calming the mind and preparing it for spiritual evolution are described.

One should inhale and exhale slowly and pause, maintaining the retention for as long as is comfortable. This practice ensures a state of consciousness which is like a calm lake.

(For breath control, see Light on pranayama.)

I.35 visayavati va pravrttih utpanna manasah sthiti nibandhani

visayavati

related to, attached to object, that which is perceived

va

or

pravrttih

moving onwards, advancing, progressing, contemplating, devoting, applying

utpanna

born, produced, acquired, accomplished

manasah

mind

sthiti

state

nibandhani

origin, basis, foundation, binding together

Or, by contemplating an object that helps to maintain steadiness of mind and consciousness.

One may equally attain an exalted state of consciousness by becoming totally engrossed, with dedication and devotion, in an object of interest.

The practice of contemplating upon an object is the foundation of mental stability. Total absorption in the object brings about direct perception of its essence.

This sutra shows how to develop awareness and sensitivity in intelligence. In so doing, one may gain insight into the phenomena of nature (prakrti), as well as into the nature of the seer (purusa).

I.36 visoka va jyotismati

visoka

free from grief, sorrowless effulgent light

va

or

jyotismati

luminous, bright, shining, possessed of luminous bodies, a tranquil state of mind

Or, inner stability is gained by contemplating a luminous, sorrowless, effulgent light.

Here, the concentration is on the innermost core of the heart, wherein alone the sorrowless, effulgent light glows. That is the seat of the soul. The mind is guided in such a way that it becomes engrossed, and penetrates towards its source. Movements in the form of thoughts in the mind are the waves, and citta, or the seat of consciousness, is the ocean. The sadhaka must learn to keep the citta motionless and thoughtfully silent, without creating waves of thought. This effort of stilling and silencing the citta brings forth the sorrowless effulgent light of the soul (see I.45).

I.37 vitaraga viayam va cittam

vita

devoid of, free from

raga

desire, passion, love, affection

visayam

an object

va

or

cittam

consciousness

Or, by contemplating on enlightened sages who are free from desires and attachments, calm and tranquil, or by contemplating divine objects.

Vyasa, suka, sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Caitanya, sri Aurob-indo, Ramana Maharnsi and sri Ramakrsna, are examples of men of illumination. If the sadhaka reflects on the serene, pure state of such divine persons and emulates their practices, he gains confidence, attains stability and develops a desireless state of mind.

In the same way, one can also contemplate each stage of an Asana or each movement of breath in order to bring the citta to a state of desirelessness. If consciousness is kept free from desire, it becomes pure. Mere withdrawal from the world does not in itself achieve this aim.

I.38 svapna nidra jñana alambanam va

svapna

dream state, a state of delusion

nidra

sleep state

jñana

wakeful state, awareness, intelligent state

Alambanam

support, base, dependence or resting upon, assistance, help, distinguishing the gross from the eternal

va

or

Or, by recollecting and contemplating the experiences of dream-filled or dreamless sleep during a watchful, waking state.

Citta has four planes: the unconscious, subconscious, conscious and super-conscious. The unconscious plane is the state of dreamless sleep (nidra). The subconscious plane is the dream-filled {svapna) state. The conscious plane is the waking (jagrata) state. The superconscious plane is the fourth state known as turya. Turya is samadhi, the final state wherein the individual soul (jivatman) is merged with the Universal Soul (Paramatman).

By close examination of dream-filled and dreamless sleep, the sadhaka comes to distinguish the various levels of consciousness, and learns to transform them into a single state of consciousness.

The sadhaka should also contemplate on the thought of the soul before going to sleep, so that the same thought flows uninterruptedly whether he is awake, dreaming or asleep. This supports progress towards the attainment of spiritual bliss.

In III.11–12 Patañjali explains ksaya (waning) citta, santa (calm) citta and udaya (rising) citta. These may be compared to svapna, nidra and jagrata states. Normally, declining thoughts lead to quietness; but strong rising thoughts keep one awake. A yogi maintains passive alertness without allowing thoughts to spring forth, or strives to restrain them. This is reflective contemplation (see III.13, table 13).

The sadhaka begins his sadhana dreaming of the pros and cons of each Asana. This is a svapna state. He stabilizes his ideas and rests on them. This is nidra state. Later he learns to distinguish the subtle points and perform them with awareness. This is the state of jñana.

I.39 yathabhimata dhyanat va

yathabhimata

that which is desirable, a selected thing, a pleasing thing, according to one’s wish or taste

dhyanat

by meditation

va

or

Or, by meditating on any desired object conducive to steadiness of consciousness.

The final method is to choose an object conducive to meditation: not one which is externally pleasing, but auspicious and spiritually uplifting. Practising this simple method of one-pointed attention, the sadhaka gradually develops the art of contemplation. Later, when a degree of mental stability is attained, he will be able to meditate on any object at will.

The perfect performance of an Asana is pleasing, and through it, too, one can gain serenity.

On the face of it this sutra is simple: it describes meditation on a pleasing object. Its deeper, hidden meaning is harder to comprehend. Having explained various methods of meditation with support, Patañjali now comes to subjective meditation. The most ‘pleasing’ object of meditation is in fact one’s very existence, the core of the being. Patañjali advises us to trace the seed of that core, the living spirit that pervades everything from the most infinitesimal particle to the infinitely greatest. This is the most difficult subject to meditate upon.

This is the last of the six alternative methods of stilling the mind and consciousness. This group of sutras shows that Patañjali’s teaching was broad-based, enabling people of all creeds and all walks of life to aspire to life’s spiritual goal. (See Table 4.)

I.40 paramanu paramamahattvantah asya vasikarah

paramatu

an infinitesimal particle, an atom

paramamahattvantah

most distant, most excellent, highest, best, greatest asya of this

vasikarah

bringing into subjugation, having mastery over passions, or in one’s power

Mastery of contemplation brings the power to extend from the finest particle to the greatest.

By following the various alternative methods of contemplation described above, the sadhaka develops the power to penetrate from the most infinitesimal particles to infinity.

The sadhaka is not only freed from all disturbances of the mind; he has also subjugated his consciousness and mastered his passions. His consciousness reaches a height of purity in which it develops the power of penetrating objects from the minutest atoms to the mighty cosmos.

Table4: Stages in the purification of citta

This sutra describes how the ordinary mind is transformed into a supermind, able to penetrate the boundless regions of space, and the deepest regions within (see 1.45).

I.41 ksinavrtteh abbijatasya iva maneh grahinr grahana grahyesu tatstha tadañjanata samapattih

ksina

dissolving of the sattva-, rajo- and tamo- gunas

vrtteh

modifications, fluctuations

abhijatasya

inborn, noble, courteous, polite, worthy, learned, distinguished, wise, transparent

iva

like

maneh

a gem, a flawless crystal

grahinr

knower, taker, perceiver, one who has comprehended

grahana

act of seizing, catching, accepting, grasping, instrument of cognition

grahyesu

to be known

tatstha

becoming stable

tadañjanata

acquiring or taking the shape of the seen or known

samapattih

transformation, assuming the original form, consummation, completion, conclusion

The yogi realizes that the knower, the instrument of knowing and the known are one, himself, the seer. Like a pure transparent jewel, he reflects an unsullied purity.

With refinement, the consciousness becomes highly sensitive, choiceless, stainless and pure. The perceiver, the instrument of perception and the perceived object, clearly reflected, are nothing but the seer. Like an object reflected flawlessly in a clean mirror, the perceiver, the perceived and the instrument are reflected as one. This transparent reflecting quality of consciousness is termed samapatti, which means assumption of the original form of the seer.

Patañjali’s description of samapatti underlines the subtle distinction between yoga, samadhi and samapatti. Yoga is the employment of the means to reach samadhi. Samadhi is profound meditation, total absorption. Samapatti is the balanced state of mind of the seer who, having attained samadhi, radiates his own pure state. Yoga and samadhi, in other words, can be regarded as practices; samapatti the state towards which they lead.

When all the fluctuations of mind’s sattvic, rajasic and tamasic nature reach an end, mind ceases to gather and transmit information, and citta is like the still, clear water of a calm lake. It transforms itself to the level of the seer, and reflects its purity without refraction. Like a transparent jewel, it becomes at once the knower, the instrument of knowing and the object known. Thus the sadhaka experiences the true state of the soul.

Samapatti is enshrined in abhijatamani, which means flawless jewel. Citta is now a flawless jewel. A hungry or a thirsty person needs only food or water. Hunger and thirst are necessities of life: their demands are instinctive and instantaneous. Emotions such as lust, anger, greed, infatuation, pride and hatred are not instinctive but are imbibed through contact with the external world; yet, in man they are reflected in their totality. Truthfulness, purity and a loving nature are intuitive and are also fully expressed in man. By yogic discipline and contemplation, the sadhaka develops these intuitive qualities of purity and truthfulness and realizes the flawless quality of consciousness. Through it, he becomes the seer and transmits rays of wisdom through his words, thoughts and actions.

I.42 tatra sabda artha jñana vikalpaih sankirna savitrarka samapattih

tatra

there

sabda

word

artha

purpose, aim, meaning

jñana

knowing, knowledge, intelligence

vikalpaih

an option, imagination, the act of allowing a rule to be observed or not as one pleases, surmise, the carrying out of a transaction upon stipulated terms

sankirna

poured together, mixed together, strewn, intermingled

savitarka

becoming totally engrossed, thoughtful

samapattih

transformation

At this stage, called savitarka samapatti, the word, meaning and content are blended, and become special knowledge.

In the refined state of consciousness, words and their meanings are simultaneously and harmoniously blended with understanding, so that consciousness becomes engrossed in a new kind of knowledge. This is savitarka samapatti.

I.43 smrtiparisuddhau svarupasunya iva arthamatranirbhasa nirvitarka

smrti

memory

parisuddhau

completely cleansed, purest of minds

svarupasunya

devoid of one’s nature

iva

as it were

arthamatranirbhasa

shining alone in its purest form

nirvitarka

unreflecting, unconsidered, without analysis or logic

In nirvitarka samapatti, the difference between memory and intellectual illumination is disclosed; memory is cleansed and consciousness shines without reflection.

When memory is completely cleansed and purified, mind too is purified. Both cease to function as distinct entites; a no-mind state is experienced, and consciousness alone manifests itself, shining unblemished without reflection of external objects. This is called nirvitarka samapatti.

Memory is the recollection of past thoughts and experiences. It is the storehouse of past impressions. Its knowledge is reflected knowledge. The sadhaka should be aware that memory has tremendous impact on intelligence. By perseverance in yoga practices and persistent self-discipline, new experiences surface. These new experiences, free from the memories of the past, are fresh, direct and subjective; they expunge what is remembered. Then memory ceases to function as a separate entity. It either merges with consciousness or takes a back seat, giving predominance to new experiences and bringing clarity in intelligence. For the average person memory is a past mind. For the enlightened man, memory is a present mind. As memory is purified, intelligence becomes illuminative and moves closer to the seer, losing its identity. This is nirvitarka samapatti.

Even for the unripe mind, there is a right and a wrong use of memory. It is not for recollecting pleasure, but for establishing a fund of experience as a basis for further correct action and perception.

In Asana, for example, we start with trial and error. The fruits of these experiments are graded by the discriminating intelligence and stored in the memory. As we progress, trial and error decreases, and correct perception increases. So memory provides foresight against error. In the headstand, for example, something that usually goes wrong is that the upper arm shortens. Memory warns us, ‘be aware before it happens’. Discriminating experiment awakens consciousness. Awareness, with discrimination and memory, breaks down bad habits, which are repeated actions based on wrong perception, and replaces them with their opposite. In this process the brain must be creative, not mechanical. The mechanical brain questions only the external phenomena, bringing objective knowledge. The creative brain calls into question the inner and outer, bringing subjective and spiritual knowledge. In Asana understanding begins with the inner skin; in pranayama, with the inner membrane of the nose. These are the starting points of the spiritual quest in Asana and pranayama.

In this way, a virtuous character is built up. When awareness is linked to intelligence, honesty comes into being; when brain and body move in harmony, there is integrity. In all this long process of tapas, memory supports the building-up process. When memory functions perfectly, it becomes one with the intelligence. At this point, memory, which had originally dug for us so many pits, has transformed itself into our true guru.

I.44 etayaiva savicara nirvicara ca suksmavisaya vyakhyata

etaya

by this

eva

also

savicara

reflection, deliberation, consideration, investigation

nirvicara

without reflection, not needing any consideration

ca

and

suksmavisaya

subtle object, subtle thing

vyakhyata

related, explained, expounded, commented upon

The contemplation of subtle aspects is similarly explained as deliberate (savicara samapatti) or non-deliberate (nirvicara samapatti).

Transformation of the consciousness by contemplation on subtle objects such as the ego (ahamkara), intelligence (buddhi) or the counterpart of the elements (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell), or the qualities of luminosity, vibrancy and dormancy of nature, conditioned by space, time and causation, is savicara samapatti. Without these reflections it becomes nirvicara samapatti.

In nirvicara samapatti, the sadhaka experiences a state without verbal deliberation. All the subtle objects reflected in savicara are extinguished. He is free from memory, free from past experiences, devoid of all past impressions. This new state of contemplation is without cause and effect, place or time. The inexpressible states of pure bliss (ananda) and pure self (sasmita) rise to the surface and are experienced by the sadhaka (see 1.41).

I.45 suksmavisayatvam) ca alinga paryavasanam

suksmavisayatvam

subtle object

ca

and

alinga

having no characteristic mark, unmanifested form

paryavasanam

ending

The subtlest level of nature (prakrti) is consciousness. When consciousness dissolves in nature, it loses all marks and becomes pure.

By exploring the subtle particles of nature, the consciousness reaches its goal. It is a state of complete cessation of the fluctuations of the mind. That is the subtle, infinitesimal intelligence (mahat) of nature (prakrti).

Prakrti and pradhana:

Prakrti

original or natural form of anything, nature; alinga, unmanifested form

Pradhana

primary or original matter, the first evolved or source of the material world, that which is placed or set before, chief or principal thing (these are all susceptible to change, whereas the soul (Purusa) is changeless)

The subtlest of the infinitesimal principles of nature is the cosmic intelligence (mahat), which in an individual is transformed as the ‘I’ in a dynamic, minute form, called asmita or the small self. Though the Self does not change, the small self brings about changes in a human being due to the influence of nature’s qualities. The body is made up of the particles of prakrti – from its outermost sheath, the body, to its innermost core, the deep Self. When the individual self, the ‘I’ is quietened by yogic practices, prakrti has reached its end and merges into the Self. This is subjective experience, or subjective knowledge.

The sadhaka attains purity in buddhi and ahamkara, the infinitesimal source or apex of nature, mula-prakrti.

Here, the sadhaka has reached the crossroads of Self-Realization (see II.19).

I.46 ta eva sabijah samadhih

ta

they

eva

only

sabijah

with seed

samadhih

profound meditation or absorption

The states of samadhi described in the previous sutras are dependent upon a support or seed, and are termed sabija.

The savitarka, nirvitarka, savicara, nirvicara, sananda and sasmita samadhis are known as sabija (seeded or with seed) samadhis.

All the states of samapatti described in I.17–19 and I.42–45 are seeded samadhis. All these samadhis are dependent upon an object which includes the intelligence (buddhi) and the ‘I’ principle (asmita). Their seed is the core of the being, the only seedless seat in each individual.

It is interesting to note that the six samapattis mentioned so far belong to the functions of the brain. The source of analysis (savitarka) or absence of analysis (nirvitarka) is the frontal brain. For investigation and examination (savicara) or absence of them (nirvicara), the source is the back brain. The source of joy (ananda) is the base of the brain, and of individuality (asmita), the top of the brain.

Through the disciplines of yoga, the sadhaka transforms his attention from the gross to the subtle. When he reaches the apex of nature, the brain being a part of nature, he attains perfection in controlling the modes of consciousness. He is able to stop all functions of the brain (see IV. 4), deliberate and non-deliberate, at will. That is why it is termed samadhi with seed.

Whatever is dependent on nature for contemplation is seeded samapatti. The contemplation of the seer, who is the source of all seeds, is without support. Though both seer and nature are eternal, nature is changeable while the seer remains the same, immutable, not dependent on any support except his own self. That is why contemplation of the seer is seedless or supportless (nirbija) samadhi. Another state of samadhi, coming between sabija and nirbija has been discussed by Patañjali in I.18.

Like the petals of the lotus, which unfold as the sun rises, and close as it sets, the petals of the brain retreat from the periphery to its source, its stem, or bud, and all its functions cease. This is commonly called asam-prajñata samadhi. It is the threshold between sabija and nirbija samadhi. If the sadhaka remains on the threshold, he merely conquers the elements. If he falls back, he is caught in pleasures and pains. If he crosses over, he attains freedom and beatitude.

I.47 nirvicara vaisaradye adhyatmaprasadah

nirvicara

non-reflection, or reflection without seeds

vaisaradye

skilfulness, profound knowledge, undisturbed pure flow

adhyatma

supreme soul (manifested as an individual soul); the relation between the supreme and the individual soul

prasadah

clearness, brightness, pellucidity, serenity of disposition

From proficiency in nirvicara samapatti comes purity. Sattva or luminosity flows undisturbed, kindling the spiritual light of the self.

When intelligence and consciousness, the essence of man, remain nonreflective, profound and unconditioned, the vehicles of the soul – the anatomical body, the organs of action, the senses of perception, the mind, intelligence and consciousness – are illumined. Knowledge and understanding of the real state of the soul manifest in luminosity (see I.3).

Table 5:The stages of samadhi

I.48 rtambhara tatra prajña

rtambhara

upholding truth, full of truth, full of intellectual essence

tatra

therein

prajña

faculty of insight, wisdom

When consciousness dwells in wisdom, a truth-bearing state of direct spiritual perception dawns.

This earned spiritual illumination is filled with unalloyed wisdom, glowing with truth and reality. This luminosity of the soul manifests, shining with full fragrance.

Rtambhara prajña is a state of seasoned intelligence or mature wisdom accompanied with intense insight.

I.49 sruta anumana prajñabhyam anyavisaya visesarthatvat

sruta

heard, listened, ascertained

anumana

inference, conjecture

prajñabhyam

from the wisdom of insight

anyavisaya

other object

visesa

peculiar, distinguishing between, special property

arthatvat

object, purpose, aim, end

This truth-bearing knowledge and wisdom is distinct from and beyond the knowledge gleaned from books, testimony, or inference.

Truth-bearing knowledge is first-hand, intuitive knowledge.

This wisdom is gained through insight. It is a special, direct knowledge arising from the soul, not from the perception of the senses or from the ordinary intellect. Hence, it has a peculiar property of its own. The knowledge that springs from one’s inner self is intuitive knowledge. It is also known as ‘listening to the inner voice’.

It is instructive to compare this sutra with I.7, in which Patañjali says that one’s perception should be verified by logic and measured by traditional and spiritual lore. Now, approaching the end of this chapter, the sadhaka may be judged to be of a ripe and cultured mind; his perceptions have an independent validity requiring no verification from other sources. An ordinary man has free will in the sense that he experiences choice and must find his way by discrimination. The enlightened sadhaka, having left duality behind him, experiences only his own will, which transcends the hesitations of choice. This is the intelligence of sattva in sattva.

I.50 tajjah samskarah anyasamskara pratibandhi

tajjah

born or sprung from rtambhara prajña

samskarah

conception, instinct, formation in the mind; impressions acquired by effort are subliminal (samskara), and recollecting them is an impression or memory

anyasamskara

other conceptions, other impressions or formations

pratibandhi

contradicting, objecting, impeding

A new life begins with this truth-bearing light. Previous impressions are left behind and new ones are prevented.

When the power of the intellect springs from intense insight, that insight negates all previous residues of action, movement and impression.

As explained in I.45, the sadhaka is again at a crossroads. New samskaras may continue to emerge due to the oscillations of the mind, and this may impede real knowledge. These mental impressions must be superseded by the power of discrimination, and then all doubts dissolve. When doubts are cleared, the sadhaka has to discard even this discriminative knowledge. The new illuminating wisdom is free from doubts and discriminations; it blazes forth, a glowing beacon of knowledge.

I.51 tasyapi nirodhe sarvanirodhat nirbijah samadhih

tasyapi

that too

nirodhe

by shutting, closing, restraining, destroying, by cessation

sarva

all

nirodhat

checking, suppressing, destroying

nirbijah

seedless

samadhih

profound meditation

When that new light of wisdom is also relinquished, seedless samadhi dawns.

The sadhaka must learn to restrain even this new impression of truth-bearing light. When both old and new impressions are dissolved, a state of seedless enlightenment arises, in which all illusions and delusions terminate. This is nirbija samadhi: the state of absolute identity with the seer.

Even this distinctive knowledge of insight (I.50) has to be restrained, subdued and contained. Then, as a flame is extinguished when the wood is burnt out, or as rivers lose their existence on joining the sea, all volitions and impressions of the unconscious, subconscious, conscious and superconscious mind cease to exist. All these rivers of consciousness merge in the ocean of the seer.

Nirbija samadhi is the conquest of the citta wherein the root mind is one with the seer (see III.56). As all invading thoughts are broughts to an end by practice and detachment, the soul is freed from the shackles of earthly vehicles: the body, senses, mind, intelligence and consciousness. The seer is in the amanaskatva state.

When citta is dependent upon an object, idea or symbol, the state is called sabija samadhi. In nirbija samadhi, citta dissolves and no residue of impressions remains. All residual impressions, the thinking faculty and the feelings of ‘I’ are extinguished without trace and become universal. The soul alone manifests and blazes without form, in pristine clarity.

Here ends the exposition on samadhi, the first pada of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras.

Part two

Sadhana Pada

Sadhana means practice. By the practice of yogic discipline, one is led towards spiritual illumination. A sadhaka is one who practises, applying his mind and intelligence with skill, dedication and devotion.

Samadhi pada prescribes a certain level of sadhana for those of balanced mind and stable spiritual attainment. Nevertheless, Patañjali does not neglect beginners. In sadhana pada, they too are told how to begin their sadhana and work towards spiritual emancipation. Here, the art of practice, abhyasa is fully laid out to uphold the sadhaka in the uninterrupted maintenance of his sadhana, to guide him around pitfalls so that he may gain great clarity by acute observation and reflection and immaculate precision in practice.

This development was outlined in I.12 when Patañjali described abhyasa and vairagya as the twin uprights of the ladder of spiritual evolution. In I.18, Patañjali hints how the aspirant who has reached a certain level of development but is doubtful of his further direction, may reorientate his sadhana from the very first sutra of this second pada.

Sadhana pada therefore carries the torch for both the spiritually evolved and the uninitiated. It teaches the complete beginner, who knows no yoga, how he may rise, through his sadhana, to the level of high aspirants.

11.1 tapah svadhyaya Isvarapranidhanani kriyayogah

tapah

heat, burning, shining, ascetic devotion, a burning desire to reach perfection, that which burns all impurities, self-discipline

svadhyaya

Self-study, reflection of one’s own self, understanding one-self from the outer sheath, the body, inwards towards the inner self

Isvara

God, Lord of all

pranidhanani

laying on, imposing, turning on, directing upon; profound religious meditation; surrender

kriyayogah

yoga of action

Burning zeal in practice, self-study and study of scriptures, and surrender to God are the acts of yoga.

For Patañjali, the practice of yoga is the ‘yoga of action’, kriyayoga*, composed of tapas, self-discipline, svadhyaya, self-study and Isvara pranidhana, surrender to God.

Tapas is the blazing desire to burn away the impurities of body, senses and mind. Svadhyaya is the repetition of sacred mantras and the study of spiritual sacred texts in order to comprehend one’s own self. Isvara pranidhana is surrender of one’s body, mind and soul to God through love for Him.

Most commentators consider that this pada is intended for novices, and not for those who have already reached a high level of spiritual evolution. This is surely untrue, as sadhana is meant for both. The argument that it is only for those still roaming aimlessly in the world of pleasure does not take account of the fact that this wandering is merely a sign of a fluctuating consciousness, which may remain a problem even for evolved souls. By following the precepts of kriyayoga, all aspirants may learn to live in unshakeable serenity regardless of circumstances.

From this pada onwards, both beginner and evolved soul learn how to stabilize the mind. Its instructions enable the evolved soul to progress more rapidly towards the goal of purity and emancipation.

The disciplines of purifying man’s three constituents, body, speech and mind constitute kriyayoga, the path to perfection. Our bodies are purified by self-discipline (tapas), our words by Self-study (svadhyaya) and our minds by love and surrender to Him (Isvara pranidhana).

This sutra represents the three great paths: karma, jñana and bhakti. The path of action (karma-marga) is the discipline (tapas) of body, senses and mind. The path of knowledge (jnana-marga) is the study of the self (svadhyaya) from the skin to the core and back again. The path of love of God (bhakti-marga) is surrender (pranidhana) of all to God.

Sadhana pada identifies the source of all these paths. The first represents life, the second wisdom. The third, through the surrender of ego, brings the humility that leads to the effulgent, sorrowless light of Isvara, God.

II.2 samadhi bhavanarthah klesa tanukaratarthasca

samadhi

absorption, profound meditation

bhavana

for bringing about

arthah

contemplating with meaning and feeling, for the purpose of

klesa

afflictions

tanukaratar-

for the purpose of thinning, reducing, making slender, fine,

thah

weakening, attenuating

ca

and, both, as well as

The practice of yoga reduces afflictions and leads to samadhi.

By reducing afflictions to a minimum or even eradicating them, kriyayoga promotes profound meditation, which is a precursor to samadhi. The purpose of this yoga is to minimize all impediments to meditation and thus bring the intelligence to full, vibrant life.

Table 6: The acts of kriyayoga and the paths of the Bhagavad Gita

II.3 avidya asmita raga dvesa abhinivesah klesah

avidya

lack of spiritual knowledge, spiritual ignorance

asmita

ego, pride, ‘I’ or ‘me’

raga

desire, attachment, love, passion, affection, joy, pleasure, musical mode, order of sound

dvesa

hate, dislike, abhorrence, enmity

abhinivesah

love of life, fear of death, clinging to life, application, leaning towards attachment, intent, affection, devotion, determination, adherence, tenacity

klesah

affliction, pain, distress, sorrow, trouble

The five afflictions which disturb the equilibrium of consciousness are: ignorance or lack of wisdom, ego, pride of the ego or the sense of ‘I’, attachment to pleasure, aversion to pain, fear of death and clinging to life.

Afflictions are of three levels, intellectual, emotional and instinctive. Avidya and asmita belong to the field of intelligence; here lack of spiritual knowledge combined with pride or arrogance inflates the ego, causing conceit and the loss of one’s sense of balance. Raga and dvesa belong to emotions and feelings. Raga is desire and attachment, dvesa is hatred and aversion. Succumbing to excessive desires and attachments or allowing oneself to be carried away by expressions of hatred, creates disharmony between body and mind, which may lead to psychosomatic disorders. Abhinivesa is instinctive: the desire to prolong one’s life, and concern for one’s own survival. Clinging to life makes one suspicious in dealings with others, and causes one to become selfish and self-centred.

The root causes of these five afflictions are the behavioural functions and thoughts of the various spheres of the brain. Avidya and asmita are connected with the conscious front brain, and the top brain is considered the seat of the ‘I’ consciousness. Raga and dvesa are connected with the base of the brain, the hypothalamus. Abhinivesa is connected with the ‘old’ brain or back brain which is also known as the unconscious brain, as it retains past subliminal impressions, samskaras.*

Table 7: The five klesas (afflictions) and the brain

The sadhaka must learn to locate the sources of the afflictions, in order to be able to nip them in thebud through his yogic principles and disciplines (see I.8 viparyaya).

II.4 avidya kstram uttaresam prasupta tanu vicchinna udaranam

avidya

lack of knowledge, ignorance, nescience

Ksetam

a place, a field, fertile, soil, a region, the origin

uttaresam

that which follows, is followed by, subsequent, consequent

prasupta

asleep, sleepy, dormant

tanu

thin, lean, emaciated, delicate, slender, attenuated

vicchina

interrupted, hidden, alternated

udaranam

full active

Lack of true knowledge is the source of all pains and sorrows whether dormant, attenuated, interrupted or fully active.

Avidya, spiritual ignorance, is the source of all the other obstacles: arrogance, desire, aversion and thirst to survive. These afflictions, whether dormant, attenuated ior alternating betwee hidden and fully active, are hindrances to self-enlightenment, Patañjali designates avidya as the breeding-ground of all affliction, whatever its nature.

II.5 anitya asuci duhkha anatmasu nitya suci sukha atma khyatih avidya

anitya

not eternal, impermament

asuci

impure

duhkha

sorrow, grief, distress, pain

anatmasu

not spiritual, corporeal, something different from the soul

nitya

eternal, everlasting, constant

suci

pure

sukha

joy, pleasure

atma

soul

khyatih

opinion, view, idea, assertion

avidya

ignorance, nescience

Mistaking the transient for the permament, the impure for the pure, pain for pleasure, and that which is not the self for the self: all this is called lack of spiritual knowledge, avidya.*

Naturally we make mistakes, but when, through want of understanding, we fail to reappraise or reflect, error becomes a habit. As the processes of thought and action have existed from the beginning of civilization, so has trial and error been used in the search for knowledge. But when all doubts have been resolved in the pursuit of sadhana, the discriminative power of intelligence comes to an end and pure wisdom alone remains, in which perception and action are simultaneous. Experimental and experiential knowledge concur. Objective knowledge and subjective knowledge become one. This is pure vidya, the highest knowledge.

II.6 drk darsanasaktyoh ekatmata iva asmita

drk

power of vision, cause to see, power of consciousness

darsana

power of seeing, looking, displaying, inspecting, perceiving

saktyoh

ability, capability, strength, power

ekatmata

having the same nature, in the same manner

iva

as if, appearance

asmita

egoism

Egoism is the identification of the seer with the instrumental power of seeing.

Identifying the instruments of cognition – the senses of perception, intelligence and ego or the sense of the individual self – with the pure seer is egoism, or the conception of individuality.

Though there is a distinction between the seer (atma) and the seen, during the act of seeing the seen (the mind itself) appears to be the pure seer. This appearance of merging or ‘oneness’ is due to asmita.

One must be aware of the difference between the seer (atma) and the instrument that sees (buddhi). If they blend and work together, that experience is reality. But if the mind and senses, the seer’s agents, take it upon themselves to identify with the true seer, as if the seer were manifest or apparent, then polarities are created and seer and seen become separated or split. This is asmita.

(To understand these polarities, see 11.17, 11.21–23, III.36. For asmita, see IV.4.)

II.7 sukha anusayi ragah

sukha

happiness, delight, sweetness, pleasure

anusayi

close connection, close attachment, succeeded by, followed by

ragah

love, affection, musical mode

Pleasure leads to desire and emotional attachment.

Dwelling on pleasurable experiences ignites desire and a sense of attraction, which creates attachment. Pleasurable experiences generate greed and lust, which strengthen attachment and stimulate a greater craving, as one always wants more and more. One becomes absorbed by the pursuit of pleasure, and addicted to gratification of the senses. The aspirant may thus forget his chosen path and allow himself to be caught up in sorrow and sickness.

II.8 duhkha anusayi dvesah

duhka

unpleasantness, sorrow, grief, unhappiness, pain, distress, agony

anusayi

followed by, close connection, subsequent

dvesah

aversion, hate, dislike, abhorrence, distaste

Unhappiness leads to hatred.

Pain, sorrow and misery trigger a chain of hate or aversion. Recollecting lost pleasures, tormented by desires unfulfilled, man is led to sorrow. In extreme distress he comes to hate himself, his family, neighbours and surroundings, and feels a sense of worthlessness.

A discriminating person strives to acquire knowledge so that he may strike a balance between sukha and duhkha and live at the mercy of neither pleasure nor pain.

II.9 svarasavahi vidusah api tatha arunhah abhinivesah

svarasavahi

current of love of life

vidusah

a wise man, a learned man, a scholar

api

even, likely

tatha

all the same

arunhah

having ascended, advanced

abhinivesah

intentness of affection, leaning towards, attachment to life

Self-preservation or attachment to life is the subtlest of all afflictions. It is found even in wise men.

Love of life is sustained by life’s own force. This urge for self-perpetuation is so strong that it does not spare even the wise, and is an affliction for them and the ignorant alike. If even a highly educated, scholarly person cannot easily remain unattached to life, it is not difficult to gauge the feelings of an average individual.

Patañjali indicates that each human being has had a taste of death, which lingers. This imprint is the seed of fear.

Abhinivesa is an instinctive defect which can be transformed into intuitive knowledge and insight by practising yoga.

While practising Asana, pranayama or dhyana, the sadhaka penetrates deep within himself. He experiences unity in the flow of intelligence, and the current of self-energy. In this state, he perceives that there is no difference between life and death, that they are simply two sides of the same coin. He understands that the current of self, the life-force, active while he is alive, merges with the universe when it leaves his body at death. Through this understanding, he loses his attachment to life and conquers the fear of death. This frees him from afflictions and sorrows and leads him towards kaivalya.

If avidya is the root cause of afflictions, so abhinivesa results in pain. In realizing the oneness of life and death there is an end to ignorance in the aspirant, and he lives forever in the flow of tranquillity (see III.10 and IV.10).

II.10 re pratiprasavaheyah suksmah

te

these

prati

in opposition, against

prasava

procreation, generation (prati prasava = involution)

heyah

to abandon, desert, relinquish, emit, renounce, abstain

suksmah

subtle, minute, delicate

Subtle afflictions are to be minimized and eradicated by a process of involution.

Afflictions may be gross or subtle; both must be counteracted and eliminated, silenced at their very source.

The five afflictions – ignorance, egoism, lust, malice and attachment to life (11.3) appear gross (sthula) on the surface, but their subtle nature may be either dormant or highly active, or may alternate between the two (11.4). Meditation helps to eradicate them (II.2, 11).

The subtle afflictions begin with attachment to life, move in the reverse order, contrary to spiritual evolution of II.3 and end with the gross affliction, ignorance. Subtle afflictions should be overcome before they lead to worse trouble.

How does one overcome them? If a seed becomes parched, it cannot germinate; so one must render an affliction sterile by tracing it back to its source. The father of subtle afflictions is the mind, whose movements should be directed towards the seer by the yogic process of involution (prati prasava). (See the detailed explanation given under pratyahara, II.54.) In this way, subtle afflictions are vanquished and an unpolarized state of pure knowledge is attained (II.48).

II.11 dhyanaheyah tadvrttayah

dhyana

meditation, reflection, attention, observation

heyah

annihilated, rejected, quietened, avoided, silenced

tad

their

vrttayah

fluctuations, movements, operations

The fluctuations of consciousness created by gross and subtle afflictions are to be silenced through meditation.

Both II.10 and II.11 point to a way of controlling the modifications of thought-waves. In II.10, the mind is stilled through involution, the practice of renunciation or folding-in of the mind. Here, Patañjali offers meditation as another method to quieten the mind. By these means, the mind’s impulses are reduced to their subtlest point and it is compelled to rest silently in its source, the soul.

Afflictions are of three intensities: gross (sthula), subtle (suksma), and the subtlest of the subtle (suksmatama). Tapas, svadhyaya and Isvara pranidhana eradicate the gross, the subtle and the subtlest afflictions respectively (see 1.17).

II.12 klesamulah karmasayah drsta adrsta janma vedaniyah

klesa

affliction, pain, distress, sorrow

mulah

root, origin, source

karma

action, deed, work, performance

asayah

resting place, abode, asylum, reservoir

drsta

visible, capable of being seen, perceivable

adrsta

not capable of being seen, unperceivable, unobservable, invisible, fate

janma

birth, life

vedaniyah

to be known, to be experienced

The accumulated imprints of past lives, rooted in afflictions, will be experienced in present and future lives.

The imprints or residual impressions of one’s actions, whether good or bad, afflict one according to their degree of merit and demerit. They are the seed of future sorrows and pleasures which we experience both in this life and in lives to come.

Past actions are the seeds of affliction which in turn give rise to other actions, necessitating further lives, or reincarnation. This is known as karma, or the universal law of cause and effect. Afflictions and actions intermingle and interact, and the cycles of birth and death roll on. Actions rooted in desire, greed, anger, lust, pride and malice invite affliction, just as those which are free from the spokes of the wheel of desire lead towards the state of bliss. The effects of both types of action may be visible or invisible, manifest or latent; they may surface in this life or in future lives. According to Sri Hariharananda* ‘one’s reservoir of karma is analogous to a seed; desire, greed and lust are shoots from the field; life is the plant and life’s pain and pleasure are the flowers and fruits’. Through the practices of kriyayoga – tapas, svadhyaya and Isvara pranidhana – we try to expunge in this life our residual karma. This is the accumulated fruit of our actions, gathered over our past lives and in this life, in the form of visible and invisible or predetermined effects which we regard as destiny or fate.

Hindu lore is full of examples of the work of karmasaya; there is Nandisvara who became the vehicle of Lord Siva, Visvamitra, a warrior king who became a pure and true brahmin, urvasi, a nymph who became a creeper; and Nahusa, king of heaven who became a snake.

Nahusa, a king of Bharata (India) was a virtuous king. When Lord Indra, King of heaven, killed the demon Vrtra, he had to do penance for having killed a brahmin, leaving heaven temporarily without its king. For his virtue Nahusa was invited by the Gods to rule heaven in Indra’s stead until his return from the penance. Reluctantly Nahusa agreed. But while there, he fell in love with sachi, Indra’s wife. Nahusa made it known to sachi that as Lord of heaven he considered he had a right to share her favours. To safeguard herself, sachi asked her preceptor, Brhaspati, how she should protect herself. On his advice, she acquiesced on one condition; Nahusa was to come to their tryst borne on a most extraordinary palanquin, carried by the seven sages (saptarsis – the constellation known as the Great Bear). Lust overruled his reflective thoughts and at once he summoned the seven sages and ordered them to bear his palanquin to sachi’s house. In his infatuation and anxiety to reach her quickly, Nahusa ordered them to move fast. The Sanskrit word for ‘move fast’ is sarpa which also means ‘snake’. He lost his self-control and kicked sage Agastya. Agastya lost his temper and in his anger cursed the king with the word sarpobhava meaning ‘become a snake’. Nahusa fell to earth in the form of a serpent (see 1.5). Nahusa remained a snake until Yudhistira washed off his karma. Nahusa had entwined himself around Bhima, son of Pannu of Mahabharata fame, promising his release only if he answered all his questions. Bhima failed to do so, but was rescued by Yudhistira, his elder brother, who had gone out in search of him. Yudhistira was alarmed to discover Bhima in the coils of a large snake, but the serpent gave his word to set Bhima free unharmed provided all his questions were answered. This Yudhistira willingly fulfilled and regained Bhima. Soon the snake returned to a human form, realized his folly and resumed his penance.

There is another example of a good karma which elevated a young bull called Nandi to reach God. Nandi, the child of Kamadhenu, the cow of plenty who yields all desires, reached the highest state of emancipation through sadhana to become the attendant of Lord siva on which He rides.

II.13 sati mule tadvipakah jati ayuh bhogah

sati

being, existing, real, essential, tone

mule

root

tat

its

vipakah

fruit, ripening

jati

rank, class, birth

ayuh

span of life

bhogah

experiencing, enjoying

As long as the root of actions exists, it will give rise to class of birth, span of life and experiences.

Life itself springs from the admixture of good and bad actions, favourable and unfavourable imprints. These form one’s birth, rank in life, span of life and the kind of experiences one has to undergo.

According to the law of karma, all conditions in the nature of our birth and life stem from our past actions, and are responsible for the experiences, pleasant or otherwise, which we meet in life.

The fruits of the actions gathered in this life are called samskaras, which become residual imprints or impressions. The fruits of actions committed in all previous lives are called vAsanas (knowledge derived from memory, or the present consciousness of past perceptions). VAsanas are impressions remaining unconsciously in the mind from past good or bad actions, producing pleasure or pain.

II.14 te hlada parinapa phalah punya apunya hetutvat

te

they

hlada

pleasant, to be glad, delighted, to rejoice

parinapa

pain, anguish, grief, lamentation

phalah

fruits

punyapunya

virtues and vices, or assets and liabilities

hetutvat

being caused by, on account of

According to our good, bad or mixed actions, the quality of our life, its span, and the nature of birth are experienced as being pleasant or painful.

In this sutra, the karmic law of cause and effect is further considered.

Sutras 12–14 indicate sadhaka should plan a yogic, disciplined way of life to minimize the imprints of action.

(To understand the nature of right actions, see I.33, II.30, II.32–33.)

II.15 parinama tapa samskara duhkaih gunavrtti virodhat ca duhkham eva sarvam vivekinah

parinama

change, alteration, transformation, consequence, result

tapa

heat, torment, pain, sorrow, afflictions, distress

samskara

impressions, refinement, conception, faculty of recollection, instinct

duhkhaih

unhappiness, pain, sorrow, grief, misery

guna

qualities, characteristics

vrtti

fluctuations

virodhat

on account of opposition, obstruction, restraint, contrast

ca

and

duhkham

pain, sorrow

eva

indeed

sarvam

all, whole

vivekinah

the enlightened, man of discrimination

The wise man knows that owing to fluctuations, the qualities of nature, and subliminal impressions, even pleasant experiences are tinged with sorrow, and he keeps aloof from them.

This sutra explains that the wise man knowing that all pleasure leads to pain, remains apart from the laws and the machinery of karma. Owing to past impressions, obstructions and anguish, the quality of any action is adulterated by its contact with the gunas of nature, so he treats even pleasant experiences as inherently painful, and holds himself aloof from them.

There are three types of characteristics of the intelligence: luminosity (sattva), vibrancy (rajas) and inertia (tamas). The wise person knows that thought transformations, afflictions, instincts and even pleasures end sooner or later in pain, so he shuns the causes of both pain and pleasure (see II.7–8).

The eyelids, being very sensitive, resist extraneous light or matter immediately, and protect the eyes by shutting. Similarly, if we are intellectually sensitive, we will be able to discriminate quickly between the pleasant and unpleasant, the mixed and unmixed, and reject unsuitable thought and action.

This sutra states that pure inner peace can be reached by acquiring the right knowledge that will weed out the roots of pain and pleasure.

II.16 heyam duhkham anagatam

heyam

to be avoided, to be rejected, to be prevented

duhkham

sorrow, agony

anagatam

not yet come, future, unknown

The pains which are yet to come can be and are to be avoided.

Past pain is finished. Pain that we are in the process of experiencing cannot be avoided, but can be reduced to some extent by yogic practice and discriminative knowledge. Unknown future pains can be prevented by adhering now to yogic discipline.

Patañjali is saying that yoga is a preventive healing art, science and philosophy, by which we build up robust health in body and mind and construct a defensive strength with which to deflect or counteract afflictions that are as yet unperceived afflictions.

Furthermore, strong health and a stable mind will enable us to face the wonder of wonders – the spiritual bliss – if and when, thanks to our good actions in former lives, the spiritual gate is set open.

One should remember that even Arjuna, hero of the Mahabharata, had to beg Lord Krsna to grace him with divine perception in order to face the divine light which his ordinary eyes would not be able to bear. Patañjali warns us here of the pitfalls in spiritual growth, and advises us to stabilize the body and mind so that we may not be shattered when spiritual light dawns.

II.17 drastrdrsyayoh samyogah heyahetuh

drastra

seer, self, purusa

drsyayoh

the seen, the known, nature

samyogah

union, association, conjunction, connection, junction, mingling

heyah

to be relinquished, to be avoided

hetuh

cause, ground, reason, purpose

The cause of pain is the association or identification of the seer (atma) with the seen (prakrti) and the remedy lies in their dissociation.

A wise person notices that inner harmony is disturbed when the mind lets itself be lured into indiscriminately sampling the world of phenomena. He tries to remain free by avoiding material attachment, in which objects draw the intelligence like a magnet and the self is enticed into an illusory relationship with the external, seen world, provoking pleasures and pains. The intelligence is the vehicle closest to the soul, which must be wary of its influence if the seer is to remain free. Otherwise intelligence enmeshes the seer in a painful relationship with external objects. As long as intelligence is undiscriminating, there is suffering. The moment it develops discriminative power, it realizes its source, and mingles with the seer. Then there is transparency between the seer and seen, allowing free, uncontaminated passage between them.

The seat of the ego or small self is the seat of the brain, and the seat of the great Self is in the spiritual heart. Though intelligence connects the head and the heart, it oscillates between the two. This oscillation ceases through right knowledge and understanding. Intelligence is then transformed: free from polarity, pure and unbiased. This is true meditation, in which ego dissolves, allowing the great Self (purusa) to shine in its own glory (IV.4).

II.18 prakasa kriya sthiti silam bhutendriyatmakam bhogapavargartham drsyam

prakasa

brightness, brilliance, clearness, splendour, elucidation, lustre

kriya

action, study, investigation

sthiti

steadiness, firmness, steadfastness, being

silam

disposition, virtue, character, piety

bhutam

elements

indriya

the eleven senses: mind, five senses of perception, five organs of action

Atmakam

the nature or essence of a thing, being composed of

bhoga

enjoyment of pleasures

apavarga

emancipation, liberation

artham

means, purpose

drsyam

knowable, seen

Nature, its three qualities, sattva, rajas and tamas, and its evolutes, the elements, mind, senses of perception and organs of action, exist eternally to serve the seer, for enjoyment or emancipation.

The visible objective world consists of elements of nature and senses of perception comprising three qualities or attributes (gunas), which are illumination, motion or action, and inertia or dormancy. All these exist eternally to serve the seer (the subject) for the purpose of experiencing the pleasures and infatuations (objects) of the world, or for emancipation.

This sutra describes the characteristics, actions and uses of nature (prakrti).

The three attributes of nature are sattva, rajas and tamas. When one mixes with another, it is subdivided into sattva in sattva (sattvo-sattva), sattva in rajas (sattva-rajas) and sattva in tamas (sattva-tamas). Similarly, rajas is divided into rajo-sattva, rajo-rajas and rajo-tamas and tamas into tamo-sattva, tamo-rajas and tamo-tamas. According to Patañjali, sattva, rajas and tamas represent prakasa, kriya and sthiti. These attributes have their own virtues for example, prakasa or brilliance or splendour is sattva; kriya or study, investigation and action is rajas; and the essence of the being resting as sthiti or dormancy is tamas.

All these attributes and virtues are established in the elements of nature, senses, mind, intelligence and ego. Together they function harmoniously in the form of illumination, action and inertia, allowing the seer to enjoy the world’s pleasures (bhoga); or by divesting himself of them, to experience liberation.

The seer is clothed with five sheaths (kosas), by the elements of nature: earth, water, fire, air and ether. Earth represents the anatomical, water the physiological, fire the mental, air the intellectual and ether the spiritual sheaths. The organs of action and senses of perception aid the sadhaka in purifying the anatomical and physiological sheaths through yama and niyama. Asana, pranayama and pratyahara divest the seer of the mental sheath; dharana and dhyana cleanse the intellectual sheath. Samadhi brings the seer out through the prison-gates of all the sheaths to experience freedom and beatitude. (See Table 8.)

II.19 visesa avisesa lingamatra alitDgani gunaparvani

visesa

the art of distinguishing or discriminating, a state of being especial, a mark

avisesa

uniform, alike, without any difference, unspecified state

lingamatra

indicator, mark, sign (chief mark or indication of prakrti, that is, the cosmic intelligence – mahat), phenomenal, directly apprehended, observed

alingani

without mark, without sign, non-primary matter or unevolved matter, unknown and unknowable substance or thing as it is in itself, the noumenal

gunaparvani

changes in qualities

The gunas generate their characteristic divisions and energies in the seer. Their stages are distinguishable and non-distinguishable, differentiable and non-differentiable.

This sutra analyses nature (prakrti) by identifying the progressive layers of its manifestation, from the most specific and definable up through the non-specific and non-distinguished and back to the undifferentiated or universal.

Table 8:The evolution ofcitta

To release ourselves from the confines of nature, we have to be familiar with its geography and its divisions, and with how these are affected and changed by the gutnDas, so that we can understand the internal rules that govern nature in all its forms, however subtle.

Nature (prakrti) consists of cosmic intelligence (mahat), which has the three qualities of luminosity (sattva), action and motion (rajas) and inertia (tamas). It is the changing influence of these qualities that gives form to our life in its cycle of births and shapes our characteristics according to the nature of our past actions and experiences. prakrti also manifests its energy in the character of the five elements: earth, water, fire, air and ether; and in the five subtle manifestations of smell, taste, shape, touch and sound.

The individual counterpart of cosmic intelligence (mahat) is consciousness, or citta. Citta consists of mind (manas), which reviews sensory and vibrational stimuli; intelligence (buddhi), which is the discriminative faculty; and ego or small self (ahamkara) which is the individual ‘I’. In addition, hidden deep in man’s nature is a powerful hidden spiritual weapon: ‘conscience’ (antahkarana or dharmendriya) which embodies ethical and moral principles. Antahkarana observes right and wrong in one’s conduct and motives, helps to cultivate citta and directs it to perform only the right actions.

There are also the five senses of perception – ears, tongue, eyes, nose and skin, and five organs of action – legs, arms, speech, genital and excretory organs.

These are the principles of prakrti. The five elements, intelligence, senses of perception and organs of action are distinguishable, that is, physically manifest in concrete form. The other parts, the five subtle manifestations of the elements and the ‘I’ consciousness (ahamkara, antahkarana and asmita) exist in a non-distinguishable or vibrational form, being non-primary and unevolved matter. Yet, all these revolve around the three gunas of nature: tamas, rajas and sattva.

The principles (tattvas) of distinguishable elements (visesa) produce changes which may be pleasant, unpleasant or stuporous (a state of suspended or deadened sensibility). The unspecified principles (avisesa tattvas) are unevolved matter, and when such matter is transformed into a specified state, creation takes place. This is called pravrttimarga. The reverse process, nivrtti marga, is the merging of the specified in the unspecified, of the non-specified in and of nature (see 1.45) into the universal spirit (purusa). The merging of nature into spirit is a divine marriage, which becomes possible through the work of yoga.

(See III. 13 and Table 9.)

11.20 drasta drsimatrh suddhah api
pratyayanupasyah

drasta

seer, purusa, one who sees

drsiimatrah

awareness only, consciousness only

suddhah

pure

api

even though

pratyayah

conviction, trust, reliance, faith, cognition, confidence

anupasyah

one who sees, seeing along with, cognizing ideas

The seer is pure consciousness. He witnesses nature without being reliant on it.

This sutra moves on from nature to soul, the Supreme Seer, the absolute knower. It is the pure essence of consciousness beyond words. Though the soul is pure, it tends to see through its agent, the intelligence (buddhi) and being carried away by the influence of nature, it loses its identity.

The previous sutra dealt with nature (prakrti) and discernible objects. Here, the nature of the seer, the soul (purusa) is described. Atma, drasta and drsimatrah are terms which show the innate nature of the seer.

Intelligence clouds consciousness in such a way that it comes to identify itself as the true seer and forgets the soul. But if intelligence can keep its power of discernment, consciousness too will remain uncoloured. If consciousness is clear, the seer is unobscured.

Intelligence, belonging as it does to manifest nature, is constantly changing, sometimes conscious and often unconscious. It is subject to sattva, rajas and tamas, whereas the seer, purusa, is beyond all these, immutable and ever-conscious (see 1.3, IV.22).

11.21 tadarthah eva drsyasya atma

tadarthah

for that purpose, for that sake

eva

alone

drsyasya

of the seen, of the knowable, nature (prakrti)

atma

seer (purusa), soul, principle of life, awareness, witnesser

Nature and intelligence exist solely to serve the seer’s true purpose, emancipation.

Intelligence exists to serve as the seer’s agent, to free the consciousness from avidya. The natural tendency of all the soul’s agents – mind, senses of perception and organs of action – to be drawn to and identify with the sensory and phenomenal world is to be avoided by discrimination, a faculty of intelligence. Uninterrupted yogic sadhana will help us overcome these obstacles and allow the soul to reveal itself.

If the sadhaka slackens in his sadhana and becomes inattentive, the senses disturb the seer and he is caught again in the pleasures of the senses. This study of mind and investigation through intelligence is the innermost quest: antaratma sadhana.

This sutra conveys that consciousness, the essence of nature, which is cognizable, exists for the sake of the seer who sees to see.

11.22 krtartham prati nastam api anastam
tadanya sadharanatvat

krtartham

whose purpose has been fulfilled, who has attained an end, successful, satisfied

prati

against, in opposition to

nastam

destroyed, disappeared, lost sight of

api

although

anastam

not disappeared, not destroyed, not lost

tat

that

anya

to others

sadharanatvat

average, being normal

The relationship with nature ceases for emancipated beings, its purpose having been fulfilled, but its processes continue to affect others.

As soon as the vehicles of nature which act as agents of the seer accomplish their task of freeing him from his mental and sensory prison, they are quietened, having accomplished their purpose. The bond between the seer and nature comes to an end. Nature ceases to exist for him. He is able to perceive his own form (svarupa).

However, the vehicles of nature, elements, their subtle qualities, cosmic intelligence, individual self, ego, intelligence, senses of perception and organs of action are common to all, so for others, who remain caught up in the world’s turmoils, the bondage endures.

II.23 sva svamisaktyoh svarupopalabdhi hetuh
saayogah

sva

one’s own, of being, owned, nature

svami

owner, master, lord, seer

saktyoh

strength of prakrti and purusa, power of the two

svarupa

form, one’s own

upalabdhi

to find, obtain, perceive, to see, recognize, to experience

hetuh

cause, reason, purpose

samyogah

union, conjunction

The conjunction of the seer with the seen is for the seer to discover his own true nature.

The powers of purusa and prakrti are intended for Self-Realization. The purpose of their contact is the unfolding of their inherent powers, and the seer’s discovery of his own essential nature.

This sutra makes clear that a desire for fusion or a close association or integration between the owner, the ‘owning’ and the owned has existed since the beginning of civilization.

Table 9: The evolution and involution of prakrti

By the light of pure knowledge, the owner, the seer, perceives and cognizes whatever is to be perceived or cognized through his association with nature. If this association is fed by ignorance, it leads the master towards enjoyment, desire, and ailments, and binds him. But if non-attachment is developed, it leads to detachment or renunciation, vairagya.

If the master maintains constant watchful awareness of his consciousness, associates with nature without attachment and remains a witness, nature (prakrti) leads its owner, the soul, to freedom, moksa.

11.24 tasya hetuh avidya

tasya

its conjunction

hetuh

cause, ground, purpose

avidya

ignorance, lack of awareness, lack of spiritual knowledge

Lack of spiritual understanding (avidya) is the cause of the false identification of the seer with the seen.

In 11.18, it was said that the mingling of prakrti with purusa can either lead to emancipation or stop our progress by involving us in desires and emotions. This sutra underlines the fact that avidya, ignorance or lack of awareness, is at the root of the confusion that brings us suffering as well as pleasure. Vidya (discriminative knowledge) destroys ignorance, for a fire will burn only as long as fuel lasts (see 1.4, 8, 30, 31 and II.5).

What is right knowledge? When discernment banishes doubt, pure understanding begins the process of disownment and detachment which releases us from the shackles of possessing and being possessed.

11.25 tad abhavat samyogabhavah hanaa
taddrseh kaivalyam

tad

its

abhavat

from non-existence, from non-occurrence, from absence, from non-entity

samyogah

union, association, conjunction

abhavah

absence, disappearance

hanam

act of leaving, stopping, removing, remedying

tad

that

drseh

of the knower, seer

kaivalyam

absolute freedom, emancipation, absorption in the supreme soul

The destruction of ignorance through right knowledge breaks the link binding the seer to the seen. This is kaivalya, emancipation.

Sutra II.16 deals with the avoidance of pain; sutras II.17–24 with how to control pleasure and pain, and attain freedom by dissociating the seer and the seen. This sutra explains the effect of snapping the link that binds the knower to the known.

At this point, the seen loses its hold and influence on the seer, miseries terminate and the soul is elevated to experience perfect freedom (see I.3 and IV.34).

Without doubt, suBtras II.17–25 are terse and many have groped for a precise and clear explanation of them. We must read and re-read them in order to grasp their meaning.

The kernel of Patañjali’s message in these difficult sutras is this: yoga is specifically designed to help us avoid the sort of slips and errors in our conduct which store up future sorrows, and it builds up our strength, vigour and courage to deal with the inevitable problems of life (see I.5).

We know that our mind turns more readily to the world’s pleasures than to the vision of the soul. It is a bridge between the senses and the spirit; it is a secret enemy, and a treacherous friend, which can change our conduct without giving us time to consider. Patañjali advises the sadhaka to train the mind and cultivate discrimination, so that objects and events are seen only for what they are: then they cannot gain power over us. This is extremely difficult but an understanding of nature will help. We are matter (temporarily) and we live surrounded by matter. Interaction with matter or natureis the condition of our life. Without discrimination we cannot break free, but with understanding and practice we can use this interaction to reach the highest peace and bliss.

If we want to experience heaven on earth, we have to grasp the qualities of nature, the gunas, that is to say the polarity of rajas and tamas, the eternal pulse of nature between movement and stillness, and the higher balancing state of sattva. Nature has degrees of subtlety. Sometimes it is more densely or clearly manifest than at others, and Patañjali analyses as follows. The four parts are: distinguishable (visesa), unspecified or universal (avisesa), phenomenal (linga) and, beyond this, noumenal (alinga). The five energetic qualities of nature, the elements, are, with the senses of perception and organs of action, distinguishable; while the five counterparts of the elements, sound, touch, taste, sight and smell are without specific signs (alinga); so also is the ego (asmita).

All these are subject to the gunas, which blend the behavioural patterns of an individual. If we understand the flow of these forces, we can reach balance, and from balance go on to true freedom. If not, we are swayed from one extreme to another, between pleasure and another pain. Yoga, says Patañjali, is the way to harmonize ourselves at every level with the natural order of the universe, from the physical to the most subtle, to reach the total state of health which brings stability, to cultivate the mind with real understanding, and to reach out ultimately to undifferentiated infinity.

The seer is an absolute knower – awareness personified. Though pure, it becomes entangled in the tricks of the mind, which are part of nature. Yet the vehicles of nature are all there to help the seer to experience serene, pristine, divine purity. Then, the elements of nature and their counterparts recede and merge in the root of nature, mula-prakrti.

(See I.45.)

11.26 vivekakhyatih aviplava hanopayah

vivekakhyatih

(viveka = discrimination, judgement, true knowledge, discretion; khyati = the faculty of discriminating objects by an appropriate designation) awareness of knowledge, fame, celebrity

aviplava

undisturbed, unbroken, unfluctuating, unfailing

hanopayah

the means for removal, the means for dispersion

The ceaseless flow of discriminative knowledge in thought, word and deed destroys ignorance, the source of pain.

Unfluctuating sound judgement with uninterrupted awareness is the essence of true knowledge, the sole means to eradicate ignorance and free the seer from the seen. It should always be kept in the highest state of awareness and attentiveness known as vivekakhyati, the crown of wisdom.

The seeds of false knowledge are to be burnt up through uninterrupted yogic practices to maintain an unbroken flow of discriminative intelligence.

11.27 tasya saptadha prantabhumih prajña

tasya

its

saptadha

sevenfold, of seven stages

prantabhumih

territory, province, resting place

prajnña

perfect knowledge, supreme knowledge, awareness, consciousness

Through this unbroken flow of discriminative awareness, one gains perfect knowledge which has seven spheres.

There are seven frontiers to be integrated between the seen (prakrti) and the seer (purusa). They are: integration of the body (sarira samyama), the senses (indriya samyama), energy (Prana samyama), mind (mano samyama), intellect (buddhi samyama), consciousness (citta samyama) and soul (atma samyama), each realizing its own individual identity. Proficiency in yoga will bring this sevenfold knowledge.

According to Patañjali, the seven states of conscious awareness are: emerging consciousness (vyutthana citta), restraining consciousness (nirodha citta), sprouted or individualized consciousness (nirmana citta), tranquil consciousness (prasanta citta), attentive consciousness (ekagrata citta), fissured or rent consciousness (chidra citta) and ripe or pure consciousness (paripakva or divya citta). Though this sevenfold knowledge is explained differently in various texts, I feel that this explanation of the seven states of awareness correctly represents Patañjali’s thought (see II.9–11; IV.27 and 29).

The seven states of consciousness* as described by Patanjali, Vyasa and the Yoga Vasista and corresponding levels of knowledge and integration as described by the author

The seven states of awareness are variously described by different commentators. According to one version they are: what has to be known is known (parijñata prajña), what has to be discarded (heya ksina prajña), what has to be attained is attained (prapya prapti prajña), what has to be done is done (karya suddhi prajña), the aim which has to be reached is reached (caritadhikara prajña), no qualities (gunas) can taint the intelligence (gunatita prajña), and the knower is Self-illumined and maintains his inner light while attending to his wordly duties (svarupa matra jyoti prajña).

According to another version, they are: right desire (subbeccha), right reflection (vicarata), disappearance of the mind (tanumanasa), Self-Realization (sattvapatti), non-attachment (asamsakta), non-perception of objects (pararthabhavana), and the experiencing of a state beyond words (brahmavidvarista).

The seven states can also be correlated with the wakeful (jagrata), dreamy (svapna), and sleepy (nidra) states, and the state of oneness with the Supreme Soul (turya); and the three intermediate states between them.

To simplify the meaning of this sutra for yoga practitioners, I would like to offer the following interpretation: knowledge of the body (sarira jñana), knowledge of energy (Prana jñana), control of the mind (mano jñana), stability in intelligence (vijñana jñana), knowledge gained by experience (anubhavika jñana), absorption of the various flavours that life offers (rasatmaka jñana), knowledge of the self (atma jñana).

In other words, by yogic practices, the sadhaka conquers his body, controls his energy, restrains the movements of the mind and develops sound judgement, from which he acts rightly and becomes luminous. From this luminosity he develops total awareness of the very core of his being, achieves supreme knowledge, and surrenders his self to the Supreme Soul, Paramatman. (See Tables 10 and 11.)

11.28 yogatDganusthanat asuddhiksaye jñanadiptih avivekakhyateh

yoga

to yoke, to join, to associate, to unite

anga

components, accessories, aspects

anusthanat

by devoted practice

asuddhih

impurities

ksaye

diminish, destroy

jñana

knowledge, wisdom

diptih

shines forth, radiates

Avivekakhyateh

the essence of knowledge, the glory of knowledge

By dedicated practice of the various aspects of yoga impurities are destroyed: the crown of wisdom radiates in glory.

Patañjali sums up the effects of yoga in this one sutra. He says that by regular and devoted practice, the impurities of the sadhaka’s body and mind are consumed, the causes of afflictions removed and the crown of wisdom is acquired. This wisdom and achievement keep the sadhaka innocent and free of pride.

Here, instead of the usual word abhyasa (repeated practice), anusthana is used. It is a dignified and noble word with a spiritual import, implying practice with dedication or religious fervour. The former brings stability; the latter develops maturity of intelligence.

Yoga can cure or lessen our physical, mental, moral and spiritual sufferings. Perfection and success are certain only if one practises with love and whole-hearted dedication.

11.29 yama niyama Asana pranayama pratyahara dharana dhyana samadhayah astau atgani

yama

self-restraint, vows of abstention, control

niyama

fixed observance, fixed rules, precepts, established order, law

Asana

sitting in various postures, seat in general, a posture

pranayama

regulation of breath, restraint of breath

pratyahara

retreat, withdrawal of the senses

dharana

the act of concentration, act of holding, keeping the mind collected

dhyana

meditation, contemplation, reflection, attention

samadhayah

putting together, collection, composition, profound meditation, absorption, superconsciousness

astau

eight

angani

constituent parts, members or divisions, limbs

Table 11: The seven kosas (body sheaths) and corresponding states of consciousness

Moral injunctions (yama), fixed observances (niyama), posture (Asana), regulation of breath (pranayama), internalization of the senses towards their source (pratyahara), concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and absorption of consciousness in the self (samadhi), are the eight constituents of yoga.

This sutra sets out the eightfold path of yoga (astanga yoga), which Patañjali proceeds to describe in detail in the remaining sutras of sadhana pada and in the first three sutras of vibhuti pada.

Restraints and observances that are bound by tradition and lineage follow uninterruptedly in the practice of yoga. Although Asana, pranayama and pratyahara are separate entities, they depend upon one another for expressing the hidden facets of yoga. These stages, which enable the seeker to rise in the art of yoga, are called progressive sadhana. Through them we reach higher and higher. The first five aspects of yoga are individual efforts for the evolution of the consciousness, while dharana, dhyana and samadhi are the universal manifestation or the natural states of yoga (yoga svarupa).

11.30 ahimsa satya asteya brahmacarya aparigrahah yamah

ahimsa

harmlessness, non-violence

satya

real, genuine, honest, virtuous, truthful

asteya

non-stealing, non-misappropriating

brahmacarya

continence, chastity, religious studentship

aparigrahah

without possessions, without belongings, non-acceptance of gifts

yamah

self-restraint

Non-violence, truth, abstention from stealing, continence, and absence of greed for possessions beyond one’s need are the five pillars of yama.

The principle of yama involves wishing no harm in word, thought or deed; being sincere, truthful and honest; not stealing or misappropriating another’s wealth or possessions; chastity; and not accepting gifts or possessing only what one needs, without being greedy.

These rules and restraints are clearly laid down for us to live in society whilst remaining a yoga practitioner.

11.31 jati desa kala samaya anavacchinnah sarvabhaumah maharatam

jati

class of birth, type of birth, rank, lineage

desa

place, spot, country

kala

time

samaya

condition, circumstance

anavacchinnah

not limited, not bound

sarvabhaumah

relating to or consisting of the whole world, universal

mahavratam

mighty vow, great obligation

Yamas are the great, mighty, universal vows, unconditioned by place, time and class.

The five components of yama are called ‘mighty universal vows’, as they are not confined to class, place, time or concept of duty. They should be followed unconditionally by everyone, and by students of yoga in particular, irrespective of origin and situation, with a reservation concerning cultural phenomena such as religious ceremonies, vows and vocations of certain people. They form the framework of rules on which society is based.

I believe that this universal approach should be applied to all the other component stages of yoga, without distinction of time, place or circumstances, to lay down the precepts of a universal culture.

11.32 sauca santosa tapah svadhyaya isvarapranidhanani niyamah

sauca

cleanliness, purity

santosa

contentment

tapah

religious fervour, a burning desire

svadhyaya

study which leads to the knowledge of the self

isvara pranidhanani

resignation to God, surrender to God (pra = fullness; ni = under; dhana = placement); making God the target of concentration

niyamah

established observance

Cleanliness, contentment, religious zeal, self-study and surrender of the self to the supreme Self or God are the niyamas.

As yama is universal social practice, niyama evolves from individual practices necessary to build up the sadhaka’s own character.

These five observations accord with the five sheaths of man and the elements of nature: the anatomical (earth), physiological (water), psychological (fire), intellectual (air) and spiritual (ether) layers. As ether (mahat akasa) is considered as an empty space, outside, so the soul is an empty space within and is called cit-akasa.

The principles of niyama that are encompassed by kriyayoga emphasize the importance of self-discipline. Mastery of yoga would be unrealizable without the observance of the ethical principles of yama and niyama.

Cleanliness or purification is of two types, external and internal. Both are necessary. Taking a bath is external purification; performing Asanas and pranayama is internal. Observance of niyama develops friendliness, compassion and indifference, and is a further aid in cleansing the body, mind and intelligence. Svadhyaya is checking oneself to see if the principles of yoga are being followed. In order to follow these principles one has first to decide whether one’s own pattern of behaviour is aligned with them or not. If not, one has to prepare one’s thoughts and actions in accordance with them, and remove those faults which hinder one’s sadhana.

Owing to desires, anger, greed, infatuation, arrogance and jealousy, the mind is engulfed in pain. Misled by these emotions, the sadhaka loses his balance of mind and behaves unethically. Re-examination of his thoughts reduces the tendency to go wrong. The ethical disciplines of yama and niyama transform the sadhaka’s alloyed or tainted mind and enable hisconsciousness to radiate in its own unalloyed purity. Therefore, yoga stresses that discipline is religion and in discipline is not religion.

What in fact is true religion? It is eternal, and has no denominations or boundaries. It is a method knowingly designed to lift each individual’s awareness so that he may experience the vision of the core of his being, atma darsana. It sustains the sadhaka’s development and prevents his downfall; it lifts him when he slips. In short, religion is the means to Self-Realization.

11.33 vitarkabadhane pratipaksabhavanam

vitarka

questionable or dubious matter, doubt, uncertainty, supposition

badhane

pain, suffering, grief, obstruction, obstacles

pratipaksa

the opposite side, to the contrary

bhavanam

affecting, creating, promoting, manifesting, feeling

Principles which run contrary to yama and niyama are to be countered with the knowledge of discrimination.

This sutra stresses that yama and niyama are an integral part of yoga. Sutras 11.30 and 32, explain what one should avoid doing and what one has to do.

Now the sadhaka is counselled to cultivate a temperament which can resist the current of violence, falsehood, stealing, non-chastity and venality, which is pratipaksa bhavana; and to go with the current of cleanliness, contentment, fervour, self-study and surrender to the Universal Spirit, which is paksa bhavana.

The principles that prevent yama and niyama are to be countered with right knowledge and awareness.

When the mind is caught up in dubious ideas and actions, right perception is obstructed. The sadhaka has to analyse and investigate these ideas and actions and their opposites; then he learns to balance his thoughts by repeated experimentation.

Some people give an objective interpretation to this sutra and maintain that if one is violent, one should think of the opposite, or, if one is attached,then non-attachment should be developed. This is the opposite thought or pratipaksabhavana. If a person is violent, he is violent. If he is angry, he is angry. The state is not different from the fact; but instead of trying to cultivate the opposite condition, he should go deep into the cause of his anger or violence. This is paksabhava. One should also study the opposite forces with calmness and patience. Then one develops equipoise.

Paksa means to take one side (in an argument), to espouse one view; while pratipaksa conveys the idea of taking the opposite position. Let me turn to the physical plane to help the reader understand and experience the sense of these two words.

Each Asana acts and reacts in its own way, cultivating health on a physical level, helping the organic systems (such as the lungs, liver, spleen, pancreas, intestines and cells) to function rhythmically at a physiological level, which effects changes in the senses, mind and intellect at a mental level. While practising the Asana, the sadhaka must carefully and minutely observe and adjust the position of the muscles, muscle fibres and cells, measuring lightness or heaviness, paksa or pratipaksa, as required for the performance of a healthy and well balanced Asana. He adjusts harmoniously the right and left sides of the body, the front and the back. Learning to interchange or counterbalance the weaker with the intelligent side brings about changes in the sadhaka: he grows, able to observe equipoise in the body cells and the lobes of the brain; and calmness and sobriety in the mind. Thus the qualities of both paksa and pratipaksa are attended to. By raising the weak or dull to the level of the intelligent or strong, the sadhaka learns compassion in action.

In pranayama, too, we focus the consciousness on the various vibrations of the nerves with the controlled flow of inbreath and outbreath, between the right and left sides of the lungs and also between the right and left nostrils. This adjustment and observation in the practice of yoga fuses paksa and pratipaksa, freeing us from the upheavals of anger and depression, which are replaced with hope and emotional stability.

The internal measuring and balancing process which we call paksa pratipaksa is in some respects the key to why yoga practice actually works, why it has mechanical power to revolutionize our whole being. It is why Asana is not gymnastics, why pranayama is not deep breathing, why dhyana is not self-induced trance, why yama is not just morality. In Asana for example, the pose first brings inner balance and harmony, but in the end it is merely the outer expression of the inner harmony.

We are taught nowadays that the miracle of the world’s ecosystem is its balance, a balance which modern man is fast destroying by deforestation, pollution, over-consumption. This is because when man becomes unbalanced, he seeks to change not himself but his environment, in order to createthe illusion that he is enjoying health and harmony. In winter he overheats his house, in summer he freezes it with air-conditioning. This is not stability but arrogance. Some people take tablets to go to sleep and tablets to wake up. Their life has the rhythm of a pingpong ball. The student of yoga who learns to balance himself internally at every level, physical, emotional, mental, by observation of paksa and pratipaksa, frees himself from this hellish to-ing and fro-ing and lives in harmony with the natural world. Because he is stable, he can adapt to outside changes. The flexibility we gain in Asana is the living symbol of the suppleness we gain in relation to life’s problems and challenges.

Through paksa and pratipaksa we can balance the three energetic currents of ida, pingala and susumna, the three principal nadis, or channels of energy. Imagine the calf muscle as it is extended in TrikonAsana, the Triangle Posture. Initially the outer calf surface may be active or awake on one side, dull on the other, and its absolute centre completely unaware. Then we learn to stretch in such a way as to bring the excess energy of ida equally to pingala and susumna or vice versa. So there is an equal and harmonious flow of energy in the three channels.

Similarly, learning to maintain clarity and equanimity of intelligence in body, mind, intellect and consciousness through meditation is the remedy for uncertain knowledge. To gain this state in meditation, yama and niyama must be cultivated. Success or failure at higher levels of consciousness depend on yama and niyama. This blending of paksa and pratipaksa in all aspects of yoga is true yoga.

I should like to emphasize here that yama and niyama are not only the foundation of yoga, but the reflection of our success or failure at its higher levels. Take, for example, a successful ‘godman’ who is an adept in meditation: if he carelessly lets himself down in yama and niyama, he invalidates his claim to spirituality.

11.34 vitarkah himsadayah krta karita anumoditah lobha krodha moha purvakah mrdu madhya adhimatrah duhkha ajñana anantaphalah iti pratipaksabhavanam

vitarkah

dubious knowledge

himsa

of violence, injuries

adayah

and so forth

krta

done

karita

caused to be done, induced, aroused

anumoditah

abetted, permitted to be done

lobha

desire, greed

krodha

anger

moha

delusion, infatuation

purvakah

preceded by, caused by

mrdu

mild, slight

madhya

moderate, medium

adhimatrah

intense, sharp

duhkha

pain, sorrow, grief

ajñana

ignorance

ananta

endless, infinite

phalah

fruit, result

iti

thus

pratipaksa

contrary thoughts

bhavanam

feeling, resting place

Uncertain knowledge giving rise to violence, whether done directly or indirectly, or condoned, is caused by greed, anger or delusion in mild, moderate or intense degree. It results in endless pain and ignorance. Through introspection comes the end of pain and ignorance.

Improper or perverse actions and thoughts result in endless pain. These thoughts, emotions and actions are of three types and vary in intensity, being mild, medium or acute. They are caused by direct indulgence, unconsciously induced, or externally abetted. Violence, for example, committed directly, caused, or condoned results in endless ignorance, physical pain and mental distress. Such behaviour is motivated by greed, anger and delusion, and may be corrected by its opposites, i.e., introspection, proper thinking and action.This sutra elaborates the dissensions and misguided efforts that hinder progress in yoga.

Disease, pain and distress are of three types. One comes through deliberate over-indulgence in pleasures through desire, lust and pride. This is known as adhyatmika roga or self-inflicted disease. The second comes from non-deliberate habits and behaviour, which arise from the imbalance of the five elements in the body and their sensory counterparts. These are adhibhautika rogas. The last type, adhidaivika roga, is often a disease of genetic or hereditary origin that appears without obvious cause. All three types may be experienced in mild, moderate or intense form.

Patañjali stresses that it is by the exercise of the discriminative faculty that dubious, wavering or uncertain knowledge, vitarka, is curtailed.

11.35 ahimsapratisthayam tatsannidhau vairatyagah

ahimsa

non-violence, harmlessness, non-injury

pratisthayam

standing firmly, firmly established

tat

his

sannidhau

presence, vicinity

vaira

animosity, hostility

tyagah

forsaking, abandoning, deserting

When non-violence in speech, thought and action is established, one’s aggressive nature is relinquished and others abandon hostility in one’s presence.

Sutras 11.35–39 describe the effects of observing the five yamas.

When the yogi has thoroughly understood the nature of violence, he is established firmly in the practice of non-violence. Peace in words, thoughts and deeds, whether awake or dreaming, is a sign of goodwill and love towards all.

In the vicinity of a yogi, men and animals who are otherwise violent and antipathetic towards each other, abandon their hostility and exhibit friendliness and mutual tolerance.

11.36 satyapratisthayam kriyaphalasrayatvam

satya

truth, sincerity, genuineness, honesty

pratisthayam

firmly established

kriya

action

phalah

results

asrayatvam

substratum, foundation, dependence

When the sadhaka is firmly established in the practice of truth, his words become so potent that whatever he says comes to realization.

Most of us think we tell the truth, but truth is causal, not integrated and cellular. For instance, if we say ‘I will never eat chocolates again’, as long as one cell of our body holds back and disagrees with the others, our success is not assured. If the stated intention is totally whole-hearted, not one cell dissembling, then we create the reality we desire. It is not our mind, but the inner voice of our cells which has the power to implement our intentions.

11.37 asteyapratisthayam sarvaratnopasthanam

asteya

non-stealing, non-misappropriation, desirelessness, non-covetousness

pratisthayam

well established

sarva

all

ratna

gems, precious things

upasthanam

approaching, coming up

When abstention from stealing is firmly established, precious jewels come.

Upon the man who does not take what does not belong to him, all riches are showered. Being without desire, he effortlessly attracts what is precious, materially and figuratively, including the gem of all jewels, virtue.

11.38 brahmacaryapratisthayam viryalabhah

brahmacarya | continence, chastity
pratisthayam | well established
virya | energy, vigour, potency, valour
labhah | gained, obtained, acquired

When the sadhaka is firmly established in continence, knowledge, vigour, valour and energy flow to him.

The celibate transforms the energy of procreation into spiritual energy (ojas), creating lustre.

Brahmacarya, in its sense of sexual control or celibacy is often misunderstood.

Sexual energy is the most basic expression of the life force. It is immensely powerful, and it is essential to control and channel it. In no way should we despise it. On the contrary, we must respect and esteem it. He who seeks merely to suppress or stamp down his sexual energy is in effect denigrating his own origins. Of course there is a moral aspect to sexual behaviour, but cultural differences permit vastly different behaviour. Some cultures allow one wife, some three, some many. In parts of the Himalayas a woman may have several husbands. Often what we call sexual immorality offends less against the code of brahmacarya than against the other injunctions of yama. Imagine the case of a married man who commits adultery with a married woman, and lies when he is suspected. Has he not offended, by the pain he gives, against ahimsa? By his lies, against satya? By taking another man’s wife, against asteya? By his greed, against aparigraha? The sexual misdemeanour in itself shrinks in comparison.

A yogi may or may not practise total abstinence; the great yogi Vasista had one hundred children, yet he was called a brahmacari. Ancient yogis studied the conjunction of stars and planets to discover the most auspicious moment for procreation. Continence or control in no way belies or contradicts the enjoyment of pleasure. Assuredly they enhance it. It is when sensory pleasure is the sole motivating factor that brahmacarya is infringed.

The life-force which finds sexual expression also serves to find the warmth of our emotions, the passions of our intellect, and our idealism. As our physical essence is sperm or egg, so our spiritual essence is the soul. Their relationship should be based on co-operation. It is the creative relationship of purusa and prakrti which leads to freedom. Renunciation is a positive process of disengagement, not a sterile rejection. In the past, most great yogis were householders. We must learn to husband and control the life-force because it provides the energy which carries us to goals other than procreation. Also we should remember that procreation by those practising brahmacarya will tend to be of a higher order than that which is carried out thoughtlessly or promiscuously.

The religious or educational studentship of adolescence is also termed brahmacarya. That is because the enormous outburst of energy which is released by puberty needs to be contained and channelled for the child’s all-round growth. If a child were to indulge in sexual activity the moment he or she was biologically ripe, a large part of his or her human potential would be thrown away.

We need application, study and idealistic motivation if we are to achieve anything. If, by youthful profligacy, the concentrated source of our energy has already been squandered, we will rediscover it later in life only with enormous difficulty. Lack of control can lead to despair, dejection and depression. But if energy is abundant and controlled we have hope and confidence, and our mind turns automatically to higher thoughts.

11.39 aparigrahasthairye janmakathamta
sambodhah

aparigraha | without possessions, without belongings, non-acceptance of gifts
sthairye | by becoming steady, stable
janma | birth
kathamta | how, in what way, in what manner, whence
sambodhah | knowledge, illusion

Knowledge of past and future lives unfolds when one is free from greed for possessions.

When one is steady in living without surplus possessions and without greed, one realizes the true meaning of one’s life, and all life unfolds before one.

Perseverance in this austerity leads to knowledge of one’s past and future lives which appear like reflections in a mirror. When the sadhaka is free of worldly aspirations, he is a krtarthan (a happy and satisfied person).

Aparigraha means not only non-possession and non-acceptance of gifts, but also freedom from rigidity of thought. Holding on to one’s thoughts is also a form of possessiveness, and thoughts, as well as material possessions, should be shunned. Otherwise they leave strong impressions on the consciousness and become seeds to manifest in future lives. These cycles of life continue until the sadhaka is totally clean and clear in thoughts, words and deeds.

Aparigraha is the subtlest aspect of yama, and difficult to master. Yet, repeated attempts must be made to gain pure knowledge of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I am meant for’.

This discriminative thinking helps one to plan one’s future lives from this present life. This is what Patañjali intends when he says that the pattern of future lives unfolds to an aparigrahin.

11.40 saucat svangajugupsa paraih asamsargah

saucat | by cleanliness, by purity
sva | self
anga | limbs, body
jugupsa | censure, dislike, aversion, being on one’s guard, abhorrence, disgust
paraih | with others
asamsargah | non-contact, non-intercourse

Cleanliness of body and mind develops disinterest in contact with others for self-gratification.

Purity and cleanliness protect the body and make it a fit home for the seer. Consequently it no longer leans towards sensual pleasures and tends to refrain from contact with other bodies.

Sutras 11.40–45 describe the effects of practising the five niyamas.

Although he recognizes that the body is perishable, the sadhaka does not regard it with disgust or distaste, but keeps it clean and pure out of respect for the dweller, purusa, within. To that extent, he respects the body as a temple (see 11.43).

As a temple or a church is kept clean each day, the inner body, the temple of the soul, should be bathed with a copious supply of blood through Asanas and pranayama. They cleanse the body physically, physiologically and intellectually. The body, having its own intelligence, develops its potential to change its behavioural patterns. It helps the sadhaka to detach himself from sensual desires, and guides him towards the holder of the body, the soul. Thus, sauca makes the body a fit instrument for the pursuit of spiritual knowledge.

11.41 sattvasuddhi saumanasya aikagrya
indriyajaya atmadarsana yogyatvani ca

sattvasuddhi | purity in the essence of consciousness
sau | cheerful, pleasing, benevolent
manasya | mind
ekagra | concentration, fixity
indriya | senses of perception and organs of action
jaya | controlled, conquered
atma | self, soul
darsana | knowledge, vision
yogyatvani | fitness to see
ca | and also

When the body is cleansed, the mind purified and the senses controlled, joyful awareness needed to realize the inner self, also comes.

With cleanliness the body becomes the temple of the seer and feels the joy of self-awareness.

When the consciousness is cheerful and benevolent, the seeker becomes ready to receive the knowledge and vision of the soul.

11.42 santosat anuttamah sukhalabhah

santosat | from contentment
anuttamah | unexcelled, unsurpassed, supreme, excellent
sukha | delight, happiness
labhah | gain

From contentment and benevolence of consciousness comes supreme happiness.

Through cleanliness of the body, contentment is achieved. Together they ignite the flame of tapas, propelling the sadhaka towards the fire of knowledge. This transformation, which indicates that the sadhaka is on the right path of concentration, enables him to look inwards through Self-study (svadhyaya) and then towards Godliness.

11.43 kaya indriya siddhih asuddhiksayat
tapasah

kaya | body
indriya | senses
siddhih | attainment, power
asuddhi | impurities
ksayat | destruction
tapasah | ascetic devotion, a burning desire to reach perfection, that which burns all impurities, self-discipline

Self-discipline (tapas) burns away impurities and kindles the sparks of divinity.

Self-discipline destroys all impurities, perfecting the body, mind and senses, so that consciousness functions freely and attains divinity.

Ahimsa cannot be properly understood without reference to tapas. Tapas is the inner himsa (violence) by which we create the possibility of outer ahimsa. Ahimsa cannot exist alone. A complementary force must necessarily exist. Mahatma Gandhi would never have been able to summon up the implacable peacefulness which moved an empire, without his ruthless attitude towards his own self. Violence is perhaps too strong a word for tapas, but it is a burning inner zeal and austerity, a sort of unflagging hardness of attitude towards oneself which makes possible compassion and forgiveness towards others.

11.44 svadhyayat istadevata samprayogah

svadhyayat | by study which leads to the knowledge of the Self, Self-study or reading the scriptures
istadevata | the desired deity
samprayogah | union, communion, coming in contact with the divine

Self-study leads towards the realization of God or communion with one’s desired deity.

Study of the Self has two paths. One is for communicating from the skin, through the inner sheaths towards the seer; the other from the seer to the outer layer of his abode. Though consciousness exists in the body, it needs to be tapped through the practice of Asana and pranayama, in which the intelligence acts as a bridge to connect awareness of the body with the core and vice versa. This connecting intelligence alone brings harmony of body, mind and soul, and intimacy with the Supreme Soul (Istadevata).

Traditionally, svadhyaya has been explained as the study of the sacred scriptures and recitation of mantra, preceded by the syllable AUM (see 1.27–28), through which the sadhaka gains a vision of his tutelary or chosen deity, who fulfils all his desires.

11.45 samadhisiddhih Isvarapranidhanat

samadhi | absorption, profound meditation, superconsciousness
siddhih | accomplishment, success
Isvara | God
pranidhanat | by surrender, by resignation, by application

Surrender to God brings perfection in samadhi.

Samadhi is attained through clarity of intelligence and intensity in thought to surrender to God. The power of samadhi comes to him who takes refuge in God.

Surrender to God releases the sadhaka from the bondage of earthly desires, leads to the renunciation of sensuous desires, and nurtures in him the most intense form of application (see 1.16 and IV.29).

11.46 sthira sukham Asanam

sthira | firm, fixed, steady, steadfast, lasting
sukham | happiness, delight
Asanam | postures, poses

Asana is perfect firmness of body, steadiness of intelligence and benevolence of spirit.

Sutras 11.46–48 define Asana and the effects of its practice.

The definition of Asana is given as follows: whatever Asana is performed, it should be done with a feeling of firmness, steadiness and endurance in the body; goodwill in the intelligence of the head, and awareness and delight in the intelligence of the heart. This is how each Asana should be understood, practised and experienced. Performance of the Asana should be nourishing and illuminative.

Some have taken this sutra to mean that any comfortable posture is suitable. If that were so, these would be Asanas of pleasure (bhogAsanas) not yogAsanas. This sutra defines the perfected Asana. From the very first sutra Patañjali demands the highest quality of attention to perfection. This discipline and attention must be applied to the practice of each Asana, to penetrate to its very depths in the remotest parts of the body. Even the meditational Asana has to be cultivated by the fibres, cells, joints and muscles in cooperation with the mind. If Asanas are not performed in this way they become stale and the performer becomes diseased (a rogi) rather than a yogi.

Nor does Asana refer exclusively to the sitting poses used for meditation. Some divide Asanas into those which cultivate the body and those which are used in meditation. But in any Asana the body has to be toned and the mind tuned so that one can stay longer with a firm body and a serene mind. Asanas should be performed without creating aggressiveness in the muscle spindles or the skin cells. Space must be created between muscle and skin so that the skin receives the actions of the muscles, joints and ligaments. The skin then sends messages to the brain, mind and intelligence which judge the appropriateness of those actions. In this way, the principles of yama and niyama are involved and action and reflection harmonize. In addition the practice of a variety of Asanas clears the nervous system, causes the energy to flow in the system without obstruction and ensures an even distribution of that energy during pranayama.

Usually the mind is closer to the body and to the organs of action and perception than to the soul. As Asanas are refined they automatically become meditative as the intelligence is made to penetrate towards the core of being.

Each Asana has five functions to perform. These are conative, cognitive, mental, intellectual and spiritual. Conative action is the exertion of the organs of action. Cognitive action is the perception of the results of that action. When the two are fused together the discriminative faculty of the mind acts to guide the organs of action and perception to perform the Asanas more correctly; the rhythmic flow of energy and awareness is experienced evenly and without interruption both centripetally and centrifugally throughout the channels of the body. A pure state of joy is felt in the cells and the mind. The body, mind and soul are one. This is the manifestation of dharana and dhyana in the practice of an Asana.

Patañjali’s explanation of dharana and dhyana in suntras III.1–2 beautifully describes the correct performance of an Asana. He says ‘the focusing of attention on a chosen point or area within the body as well as outside is concentration (dharana). Maintaining this intensity of awareness leads from one-pointed attention to non-specific attentiveness. When the attentive awareness between the consciousness of the practitioner and his practice is unbroken, this is dhyana.’ In 11.48, when Patañjali says that the pairs of opposites do not exist in the correct performance of an Asana he clearly implies the involvement of dharana and dhyana.

(See 1.20 and also Light on Yoga for further details.)

11.47 prayatna saithilya ananta samapattibhyam

prayatna | persevering effort, continued exertion, endeavour
saithilya | laxity, relaxation
ananta | endless, boundless, eternal, infinite
samapattibhyam | assuming original form, completion, conclusion

Perfection in an Asana is achieved when the effort to perform it becomes effortless and the infinite being within is reached.

Perfection in Asana is reached only when effort ceases, instilling infinite poise and allowing the finite vehicle, the body, to merge in the seer.

The sadhaka can be considered firm in his postures when persevering effort is no longer needed. In this stability, he grasps the physiology of each Asana and penetrates within, reaching the minutest parts of the body. Then he gains the art of relaxation, maintaining the firmness and extension of the body and consciousness. In this way he develops a sensitive mind. With this sensitivity, he trains his thinking faculty to read, study and penetrate the infinite. He is immersed in the boundless state of oneness which is indivisible and universal.

Some say that it is possible to acquire mastery of Asana merely by surrendering to God. How can this be so? In yoga we are on a razor’s edge and in Asana perfection must be attained through perseverance, alertness and insight. Without these we remain dull and make no progress. Surrender to God alone does not make us perfect, although it helps us to forget the stresses of life and of our efforts, and guides us towards humility even when perfection in Asana has been attained.

When the sadhaka has reached that state of balance, attention, extension, diffusion and relaxation take place simultaneously in body and intelligence, and they merge in the seat of the soul. This is a sign of release from the dualities of pleasure and pain, contraction and extension, heat and cold, honour and dishonour, etc.

Perfection in Asana brings unalloyed happiness, blessedness and beatitude.

11.48 tatah dvandvah anabhighatah

tatah | from that, then
dvandvah | dualities, opposites
anabhighatah | cessation of disturbance

From then on, the sadhaka is undisturbed by dualities.

The effect of Asana is to put an end to the dualities or differentiation between the body and mind, mind and soul. None of the pairs of opposites can exist for the sadhaka who is one with body, mind and soul.

When body, mind and soul unite in a perfect posture, the sadhaka is in a state of beatitude. In that exalted position, the mind, which is at the root of dualistic perception, loses its identity and ceases to disturb him. Unity is achieved between body and mind and mind and soul. There is no longer joy or sorrow, heat or cold, honour or dishonour, pain or pleasure. This is perfection in action and freedom in consciousness.

11.49 tasmin satisvasa prasvasayoh gativicchedah
pranayamah

tasmin | on this
sati | being accomplished
svasa | inbreath, inhalation
prasvasayoh | outbreath, exhalation
gati | movement, motion, path, course, way
vicchedah | cessation, stoppage, interruption
pranayamah | (Prana = breath, vital force; ayamah = ascension, extension and expansion or length, breadth and circumference) regulation of breath, expansion of the life force or vital energy by regulation of breath

pranayama is the regulation of the incoming and outgoing flow of breath with retention. It is to be practised only after perfection in Asana is attained.

Sutras II.49–53 describe pranayama and its effects.

pranayama, the fourth constituent of yoga, is what the heart is to the human body.

It is interesting to note that Patañjali expressly advises the sadhaka to do pranayama only after attaining perfection in Asana. For the first time, he shows a distinct step in the ascent of the ladder of yoga, whereas he has not stipulated progression for the other aspects.

Normally the flow of breath is unrestrained and irregular. Observing these variations, and conditioning the mind to control the inflow, outflow and retention of the breath in a regular, rhythmic pattern, is pranayama.

Prana is an auto-energizing force which creates a magnetic field in the form of the Universe and plays with it, both to maintain, and to destroy for further creation. It permeates each individual as well as the Universe at all levels. It acts as physical energy; as mental energy, where the mind gathers information; and as intellectual energy with a discriminative faculty, where information is examined and filtered. This same Prana acts as sexual energy, spiritual energy and cosmic energy. All that vibrates in the Universe is Prana: heat, light, gravity, magnetism, vigour, power, vitality, electricity, life and spirit are all forms of Prana. It is the cosmic personality, potent in all beings and non-beings. It is the prime mover of all activity. It is the wealth of life.

This self-energizing force is the principle of life and of consciousness. It is the creation of all beings in the Universe. All beings are born through it and live by it. When they die, their individual breath dissolves into the cosmic breath. Prana is not only the hub of the wheel of life, but also of yoga. Everything is established in it. It permeates life, creating the sun, the moon, the clouds, the wind, the rain, the earth and all forms of matter. It is both being (sat) and non-being (asat). Each and every thing, or being, including man, takes shelter under it. Prana is the fundamental energy and the source of all knowledge.

Prana (energy) and citta (consciousness) are in constant contact with each other. They are like twins. Prana becomes focussed where citta is, and citta where Prana is. In yogic texts, it is said that as long as the breath is still, Prana is still, and hence citta is still. All types of vibrations and fluctuations come to a standstill when Prana and citta are steady and silent.

The wise yogis studied this connection between breath and consciousness and advocated the practice of pranayama to stabilize energy and consciousness.

The word pranayama consists of two components, Prana and ayama. Prana is energy, when the self-energizing force embraces the body. ayama means stretch, extension, expansion, length, breadth, regulation, prolongation, restraint and control. When this self-energizing force embraces the body with extension, expansion and control, it is pranayama.

In the srimad Bhagavatam, the story is told of how ‘the nectar of immortality’ was produced through the churning of the ocean. This story, as will be understood from the interwoven explanation, symbolizes what takes place in the human body in the practice of pranayama.

The strength of the asuras (demons) alarmed the devas (angels), who, fearing that vice would dominate virtue, approached Lord siva, Lord Brahma and Lord Indra, who in turn approached Lord Visnu, the protector of the Universe, for help.

Lord Visnu suggested the churning of the ocean to bring out the nectar (amrta) of immortality hidden in it. He advised the devas to discuss with the demons the effects of the nectar, and to persuade them to jointly churn the ocean. Lord Visnu said that he would do the rest.

The angels and demons decided to use Mount Meru as the churn-staff for the churning, and Lord adisesa, the serpent, the couch of Lord Visnu, as the rope for whirling the mountain.

Plants, creepers, various grasses and herbs were gathered together and thrown into the ocean as raw materials so that they might be churned to produce the nectar of life.

According to ayurveda, the body is made up of seven constituents (dhatus) and three permeating humours (dosas). The seven elements are so-called because they sustain the body. They are chyle (rasa), blood (rakta), flesh (mamsa), fat (meda), bones (asthi), marrow (majja), semen (sukra). They keep the body immune from infection and diseases. They are churned together in pranayama for the production of the nectar of life.

Mount Meru represents the spinal column, it acts as a whisk to churn the breath to produce energy. Lord adisesa represents susumna: it is the rope which dashes or controls the spine in respiration. The head and tail of Adisesa represent the pingala and ida nadis (energy channels) or the upward and downward course of the in- and outbreath.

Ida also corresponds to the parasympathetic nervous system in western medical terminology, pingala with the sympathetic nervous system and susumna with the central nervous system. As Adisesa was used as a rope for churning, so inhalation and exhalation are the two ends of the central nervous system, the rod that churns to create the energy that is then stored in the seven chambers (cakras) of the spine. Together they churn the inbreath and outbreath to generate the vital energy known as Prana

To return to our story: as the churning began, Mount Meru sank deep into the ocean. Lord Visnu incarnated as Kurma (tortoise), crept underneath the mountain and lifted it from the floor of the seabed so that it might float and the churning could continue. Several gems were generated as a result of the churning. The last to spring out of the ocean was the amrta, the nectar of immortality.

Purusa or the soul represents Lord Visnu and the body represents prakrti, or nature. The body becomes the fountain for production and the Lord of the body is its generative force. Atman acts as a tortoise to lift and keep the diaphragm floating upwards, allowing the breath to come in contact with the inner elements of the body (earth, water, fire, air and ether) and its seven constituents (chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow, semen), as well as the ten types of vital energy: Prana, apana, samana, udana, vyana, naga, kurma, krkara, devadatta and dhanamjaya.

Through the contact of these seven constituents and ten vital energies, and with the help of the seer, the spine and the breath, the elixir of life-force is produced in the body. This Prana is now known as bio-energy. As Prana is a self-energizing force, it generates more power through the process of pranayama.

The first thing to spring from the ocean was the poison called halahala. This was swallowed by Lord Siva, who alone was capable of absorbing it. This halahala represents the toxic output of exhalation.

The life elixir is produced by the five primary elements, which are its raw material. Earth is the base for production and ether acts as a distributor of energy. Air is active in the processes of breathing in and out. This stirs and creates a fusion of the elements of water and fire, which by nature are opposed to one another, resulting in the production of electrical energy known as life-force. In Sanskrit, this is called ojas, spiritual lustre.

The generation and distribution of Prana in the human system may be compared to the production and functioning of electrical energy. Stored water is stale; running water has a dynamic life-giving force. Water running with minimal force cannot generate electricity. Through the construction of a reservoir, water falls on turbines which whirl with speed and force for the production of energy. The energy of falling water or rising steam is made to rotate turbines within a magnetic field to generate electricity. The power is stepped up or down by transformers which regulate the voltage or current. It is then transmitted along cables to light cities and run machinery. Prana is like the falling water or the rising steam.

The thoracic area is the magnetic field. The practice of pranayama makes the spindles act as turbines and transmits the drawn-in energy to the remotest cells of the lungs for generating energy. The energy is accumulated in the cakras which are situated in the spinal column and act as transformers. This energy generated in the thoracic cavity is like electricity. It is stepped up or down by the cakras and is distributed throughout the body through the transmission lines of the circulatory and nervous systems.

The yogis discovered pranayama for making full use of this drawn-in energy so that it might maintain the entire human system, comprising the respiratory, circulatory, nervous, digestive, excretory and reproductive systems with optimum efficiency and harmony.

In pranayama, the carpet of the mucous membrane of the nostrils filters and cleanses the breath as it enters in inhalation. Upon exhalation, sufficient time is given for the system to absorb the drawn-in energy so that the breath may mingle with the blood. This purified blood, filled with chemical properties and hormones, is called ‘a constituent full of jewels’ or ‘the jewel of blood’ (ratna purita dhatu).

Full use of this absorption and re-absorption of energy will allow one to live a hundred years with perfect health of body, clarity of mind, and equipoise of spirit. That is why the practice of pranayama is considered to be a great science and art.

(See notes on III.40 and also Light on Yoga, Light on pranayama and Tree of Yoga.)

11.50 bahya abhyantara stambha vrttih desa kala
samkhyabhih paridrstah dirgha suksmah

bahya | external
abhyantara | internal
stambha | restraint, suspension, a pause
vrttih | movement
desa | place
kala | time, duration
samkhyabhih | number, precision, minuteness, reflection, deliberation
paridrstah | regulated, measured
dirgha | long in place and time, expansion, high
suksmah | subtle, soft, minute, fine, exquisite

pranayama has three movements: prolonged and fine inhalation, exhalation and retention; all regulated with precision according to duration and place.

The first three components of pranayama are regulated inhalation, exhalation and retention; all are to be performed, prolonged and refined according to the capacity of the aspirant. The components are to be observed with regard to place (desa), here meaning the torso, kala indicating length of breath and samkhya, indicating precision.

There are two types of retention in pranayama. They are the interruption of the breath flow following either the in- or outbreath. The movements of the breath and the pauses between them are regulated and prolonged according to the capacity of the lungs (desa), the duration and measured regulation of the breath (kala) and the degree of refinement and subtlety (samkhya) of the sadhaka. Mastery is attained by practising in harmony, with rhythmic regulation (paridrsta).

Focus on the regulation of breath (Prana vrtti), exhalation (bahya vrtti), inhalation (antara vrtti) and retention (stambha vrtti) is called sabija (seed) pranayama as attention is on the breath itself.

Inhalation moves from the core of being – the seer – towards the consciousness. As mahat or cosmic intelligence is the first principle for nature’s activity, its individual counterpart, citta, acts to stir the soul to activity. The inbreath is made to touch the five sheaths of the body: anandamaya, vijñanamaya, manomaya, pranamaya and annamaya, or the elements: akasa, vayu, tej, ap and prthvi; while the outbreath touches in the reverse order.

Bracing of the inbreath is the evolution of the soul or the ascending order of the purusa. When the self comes in contact with the physical body, inhalation is complete. Here, the purusa embraces prakrti. The outbreath moves from the external body towards the seer, layer after layer. It is involution, or the descending order of prakrti to meet its Lord, purusa. If the inbreath is the divine union of purusa with prakrti, the outbreath is the union of prakrti with purusa. Retention of the former is antara kumbhaka, retention of the latter is bahya kumbhaka. If antara kumbhaka establishes consecration of the seer (svarupa pratistha), bahya kumbhaka frees one from the four aims of life (purusartha sunya). (See IV.34).

11.51 bahya abhyantara visaya aksepi caturthah

bahya | external
abhyantara | internal
visaya | region, sphere, an object, reference, aim, realm
aksepi | passing over, gaining over, overcoming, transcending
caturthah | the fourth

The fourth type of pranayama transcends the external and internal pranayamas, and appears effortless and non-deliberate.

The fourth type of pranayama goes beyond the regulation or modulation of breath flow and retention, transcending the methodology given in the previous sutra. It is a state similar to kevala kumbhaka, which is mentioned in the hathayoga texts and in the yoga upanisads.

When the movement of the breath functions without one’s volition or effort, the fourth stage of pranayama has been reached. The movements of the mind and consciousness cease. The flows of vital energy, intelligence and consciousness come to a standstill except for subliminal impressions. This is like virama pratyaya, as explained in 1.18. A state of pause is experienced, in both the breath and the mind. From this springs forth a new awakening and the light of intelligence vigorously penetrates the sadhaka’s innermost being.

Since this fourth stage contains no restrictions, it transcends the range of movements described in the pranayamas of 11.50. It is therefore a ‘seedless’ (nirbija) pranayama.

11.52 tarah ksiyate prakasa avaratam

tatah | from that, then
ksiyate | destroyed, dissolved
prakasa | light
avaratam | covering

pranayama removes the veil covering the light of knowledge and heralds the dawn of wisdom.

Its practice destroys illusion, consisting of ignorance, desire and delusion which obscure the intelligence; and allows the inner light of wisdom to shine. As the breeze disperses the clouds that cover the sun, pranayama wafts away the clouds that hide the light of the intelligence.

In the Yoga Chunamani Upanisad, it is said that there is no discipline higher than pranayama. It is called an exalted knowledge (mahavidya), a royal road to well-being, freedom and bliss.

11.53 dharanasu ca yogyata manasah

dharanasu | for concentration
ca | and
yogyata | fitness, suitability, propriety, ability, capability, appropriateness
manasah | of the mind

The mind also becomes fit for concentration.

pranayama is not only an instrument to steady the mind, but also the gateway to concentration, dharana.

Once the new light of knowledge has dawned through the practice of pranayama, the mind is fit and competent to move on towards the realization of the soul.

The implication here is clear that the sadhaka who had to struggle initially to cultivate a yogic way of life by self-discipline and study, now finds his efforts transformed into a natural zeal to proceed in his sadhana.

11.54 svavisaya asamprayoge cittasya svarupanukarah iva indriyatam pratyaharah

sva | their own
visaya | objects
asamprayoge | not coming in contact with
cittasya | of the thinking faculty, of the conscious faculty
svarupa | own form, natural form
anukarah | imitation, following
iva | as if, as it were
indriyatam | senses
pratyaharah | (prati + ang + hr = pratyahara, i.e., to drawn towards the opposite. Prati = opposite, against, in return; ang = near, near to, towards, strength; hr = to take, bear, carry; hr is the root of pratyahara) drawing back, marching back, retreating, restraining, withholding, withdrawal of the senses

Withdrawing the senses, mind and consciousness from contact with external objects, and then drawing them inwards towards the seer, is pratyahara.

Now the mind is able to concentrate and the senses no longer importune the mind for their gratification. They lose interest in the tastes and flavours of their respective objects, and are drawn back from the external world in order to help the mind in its inner quest. This is pratyahara.

This is the foundation of the path of renunciation. As a bird cannot fly if one of its wings is cut off, so is it in the case of the sadhaka. The two wings of yoga are practice, from yama to pranayama, and renunciation, from pratyahara to samadhi. For flight, both are necessary. Then the yogi dwells in his soul, perceiving all things directly, without the intervention of citta, the conscious faculty.

In normal daily life, consciousness helps the senses see the objects of the world with thoughts of acquisition, rejection and resignation. They become hypnotized by them, and are drawn outwards, towards pleasure. In pratyahara, the senses are directed inwards, towards the realization of the soul. Pratyahara is the withdrawal of the mind from its contact with the senses of perception and organs of action; then its direction is towards the soul.

The relationship between the mind and the senses is aptly compared to that of bees following the queen bee. If the queen bee moves, the others follow. When she rests, the others rest. They do not function independently of their queen. Similarly, when the mind stops, the senses, too, stop functioning. This is pratyahara. It is the beginning of man’s return journey towards his Maker. It is the science of restraining the senses by depriving them of that which feeds them, the external objective world. It frees them, by withdrawing the supply of nourishment in the form of desires and their satisfactions.

By controlling the senses and mind, the sadhaka draws citta towards its source – the soul, atma, and through atma to Paramatma, God. For example, while performing an Asana the intelligence of the body extends outwards, and the senses of perception, mind and intelligence are drawn inwards. It is the same in the performance of pranayama. This is pratyahara.

Here, in order to understand the characteristics and components of nature, the reader should refer again to II.19, in which the basic elements of the universe according to samkhya philosophy are fully described. To summarize: Nature consists of five gross elements, earth, water, fire, air and ether with their five subtle counterparts, smell, taste, shape, touch and sound. These interact with the three gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas. Citta, comprised of ego, intelligence and mind is the individual counterpart of mahat, cosmic intelligence. This cosmic intelligence is the unevolved primary germ of nature, or the productive principle, for creation of all phenomena of the material world. There are also the five senses of perception – ears, nose, tongue, eyes and skin – and five organs of action – legs, arms, speech and the organs of generation and excretion.

The five senses of perception come in contact with sound, smell, taste, sight and touch, send their impressions to the mind and are stored in the memory. Memory longs for further experiences and incites the mind to bypass intelligence and solicit the senses for yet more sense gratification. This in turn incites the mind to seek further experiences through the organs of action. Throughout this process, intelligence measures advantages and disadvantages in order to counterbalance memory, mind and senses which, recalling the taste of past pleasures, are avid for more. Almost inevitably, intelligence remains unheeded. Through over-stimulation and misuse, the organs of action lose their potency and are no longer capable of exciting the organs of perception or the mind.

Owing to the force of past impressions, one continues to hanker after renewed sensation. But one can never be satisfied. This breeds unhappiness and frustration. Here lies the true role of pratyahara, the fifth aspect of yoga. It is the friend who releases you from the snares of the external world, and leads you towards happiness in the delight of the soul.

The practice of pratyahara modifies the mechanism described above in the following manner. The mind, which until now had bypassed intelligence, now approaches it for guidance. Intelligence employs its discriminative faculty to weigh right and wrong, the appropriate and inappropriate, and supports the mind in its struggle to free itself from the vociferous claims of memory and imprints. This act of going against the current of memory and mind is pratyahara. Pratyahara is called an external quest (bahiranga sadhana), because the senses are disciplined by intelligence so that they may begin a journey in reverse, and return to their points of origin.

This process of weighing one’s instincts, thoughts and actions is the practice of detachment or renunciation (vairagya). Energy is conserved and used only when necessary; the continual longing to repeat old sensations is gradually curbed. Memory collects new and fresh impressions and is subdued: it becomes subservient to intelligence and consciousness. It is consciousness which grasps intelligence, and brings it to rest at the source of conscience. Then the impulses of nature end and intuitive insight flows freely. This is the effect of pratyahara.

It has already been mentioned that pranayama removes the clouds that obscure intelligence and allows it to shine forth. The mind is now fit for meditation. Earlier, consciousness was always willing to oblige by listening to the senses, and even went out of its way to help them to find gratification. Now the senses take a reverse turn, and help consciousness fulfil its desire to experience Self-Realization.

This is pratyahara. It can be divided into four stages, physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual. Withdrawing energy from.the organs of action and senses of perception towards the brain is physical pratyahara. Quietening the fluctuations in the four lobes of the brain is mental pratyahara; drawing intelligence towards the stem of the brain is intellectual pratyahara. Directing the energies of intelligence and consciousness towards the seat of conscience is spiritual pratyahara. It culminates in the vision of the seer, atmasaksatkara.

11.55 tatah parama vasyata indriyatam

tatah | then, from that
parama | the highest
vasyata | subdued, controlled, governed
indriyanam | of the senses

Pratyahara results in the absolute control of the sense organs.

The effect of pratyahara is felt when the senses are mastered, and the mind is ripe and avid for its spiritual quest.

When the senses have ceased to run after pleasures obtained from the phenomenal world, they can be yoked to serve the soul.

Sadhana pada instructs the sadhaka how to survey his own weaknesses in each domain – moral, physical, physiological and intellectual – and how to eliminate them, since they are not conducive to yogic discipline and spiritual emancipation.

Yama develops the art of living in society honestly; niyama, that of cleansing one’s impurities. Asana eliminates physical and mental perturbations, and pranayama maintains harmony and prevents dissipation of the flow of vital energy, making the mind a fit instrument for meditation. Pratyahara sublimates both senses and mind.

Thus ends the external quest (bahiranga sadhana). Now the sadhaka crosses the threshold of the internal quest (antaranga sadhana) of yoga.

Here ends the exposition on sadhana, the second pada of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras.

* Kriyayoga has come to have a wider connotation than the path of action, the path of knowledge, or even the dedication of all actions to the Divine (karma, jñana, and bhakti-marga respectively).

This is because Isvara pranidhana means not only the surrender of the fruits of actions, but of all actions themselves to the Divinity. Love of God and the act of surrender to Him, is the path of bhakti. Hence, bhaktimarga too is encompassed by kriyayoga.

*According to Patañjali the five fluctuations (vrttis), the five afflictions (klesas) as well as the maturity of intelligence through savitarka, nirvitarka, savicara, nirvicara, ananda and asmita are all functions of the four lobes of the brain. The seat of logic is in the front brain, the seat of reasoning in the back brain, the imprinting of pleasure and pain takes place in the base and the seat of individuality, the ‘I’ or ‘Me’ is in the top. When all four lobes of the brain are cultured and blended together, the brain becomes superconscious (see 1.17).

* Here is an example of avidya. Iron and coal are two different entities, but when iron is heated, it becomes red hot and looks like live coal. Similarly, though the body and the eternal Self are distinct entities, lack of knowledge makes one believe that they are one. Taking pride in the body as the Self is also avidya.

* Patañjali’s Yoga Sutra, Calcutta University Press.

Part three

Vibhuti Pada

In this pada Patañjali speaks of the properties of yoga and the art of integration (samyama) through concentration, meditation and profound absorption.

On this innermost quest, supernatural powers or accomplishments (vibhutis) come naturally to a yogi who has integrated his body, mind and soul. There is a danger that he will be seduced by these powers. He should bypass them in order to pursue his sadhana as far as kaivalya, the height of indivisible existence.

Samadhi pada concerned evolved beings and their practice in relation to achieving seedless samadhi. Sadhana pada dealt with the external quest (bahiranga sadhana), through which beginners and advanced practitioners alike learn to maintain their mental poise under any stress. Vibhuti pada moves on to the inner quest (antaranga sadhana), comprising concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and total absorption (samadhi). Patañjali coins the expression samyama yoga to link them.

Samyama explains the disciplines necessary both to live in the natural grace of yoga, and to accrue supernatural powers, or siddhis.

The idea of the supernatural or supernormal powers presents a problem to the modern reader, who is probably of a rational and scientific bent. That is because we feel obliged to believe or disbelieve in them. If we disbelieve, and consider them to be a fantasy left over from a mythical and superstitious culture, this can lead us to have serious doubts about the validity of Patañjali’s other chapters.

In feeling that we must make up our minds on this subject, we are underestimating the subtlety of Patañjali’s intentions. The Yoga Sutras are addressed to everyone: those who are spiritually evolved and those who are not. The extraordinary point is that they are addressed to both, all the time. Nothing Patañjali says is inappropriate to anyone. All levels are present, and trouble often comes from where we least expect it. Has not a failure to observe the basics of yama/niyama brought many a modern God-man’s reputation crashing? Does not even a criminal in sleep and on the moment of waking experience a feeling akin to samadhi? So we can be sure that Patañjali, when discussing the dangers engendered by siddhis, was talking equally to ordinary as well as to advanced sadhakas, and not just indulging in flights of fancy.

The essence of what he is saying is this: when we strive mightily for a goal on our path, gratifying rewards and results incidentally come in our way. We can easily become so enamoured of what we have accidentally acquired, that we mistake it for the goal itself.

Imagine a young person who wants to be a great actor, a worthwhile goal. On the way he acquires fame, and if he is not steadfast in his purpose, he makes fame alone his new goal. The siddhi of renown has beguiled and swallowed him up.

Or an ambitious young businessman sets off on his career to provide for his family, and on the way becomes rich. He now has more than enough. But riches and their pursuit now possess him: he neglects his wife and children who live in sterile luxury while he pursues money and more money for its own sake.

Imagine a man who through merit of past lives is born into a royal household. Instead of regarding his good fortune as a sign that he must humbly serve his people, he becomes seized by pride of birth and behaves tyrannically.

In all these cases the protagonist has let himself be side-tracked, has substituted an agreeable and merited by-product of his efforts for the real goal. At best his progress is stopped, at worst he is consumed; and in all cases illusion has displaced reality. The lesson of siddhis for all of us is not to allow ourselves to be side-tracked, but to be steadfast. A man who has let himself become ensnared by the glamour of siddhis is like one who believes that the bricks and mortar of the temple are God Himself. This is known as spiritual materialism.

The Asta (eight) Siddhis

1 atima = to become as minute as an atom

2 mahima = to wax in magnitude

3 laghima = to become light

4 garima = to become heavy

5 prapti = the power to dominate and obtain what one wants

6 prakamya = the freedom of will and attainment of wishes

7 ¯satva = supremacy over all

8 vasitva = the power to subjugate anyone or anything

These are the eight powers which come unbidden to the yogi. Although they indicate that his sadhana is on the right path, they are also capable of catching him up with the force of a whirlwind to bring his sadhana crashing down. Such siddhis must be ignored and the ultimate goal of freedom and beatitude maintained. Pride in siddhis and preoccupation with them lead to disaster and chaos. They create attachment and affliction, and that is why Patañjali (III.38) holds them to be obstacles to dhyana and samadhi. They are only of use if one has forgotten the aim of yoga. ‘Discard them’, he says, ‘and devote all energies to the realization of God.’

III.1 desa bandhah cittasya dharana

desa | place, spot, region
bandhah | binding, combining, connecting, uniting, fixing
cittasya | of mind, of consciousness
dharana | the act of holding, keeping the mind collected, concentration

Fixing the consciousness on one point or region is concentration (dharana).

dharana means focus of attention. Focusing the attention on a chosen point or area, within or outside the body, is concentration. By it the functions of the mind are controlled and brought to one focal point.

Once mastery of the five stages of yoga from yama to pratyahara is achieved, the art of focusing the mind and consciousness is undertaken. dharana is established when the mind learns to remain steady on its own, or hold on to an unmoving object.

Through the practice of yama and niyama, the sadhaka develops emotional stability. Through Asana, he keeps his body, the abode of the soul, free from disease. In pranayama, he learns to stop the dissipation of energy by regulating its flow for proper distribution throughout his body and mind. Through pratyahara, he develops willpower, detaches himself from the organs of senses and acquires clarity of thought. This is the beginning of culturing the brain. Once he has become indifferent to worldly matters, he is fit to proceed on the inner quest, enriching the mind through dharana. Dhyana and samadhi lead the consciousness on the innermost quest (antaratma sadhana), to the soul itself.

The eight components of astanga yoga are interwoven, though each is described individually for the sake of convenience. They are subdivided into the external quest (bahiratga sadhana), the internal quest (antaranga sadhana) and the innermost quest (antaratma sadhana) which enable even the uninitiated to learn to concentrate, step by step, on concrete forms through systematic practice. Having reached maturity and refinement they are able to penetrate their inmost thoughts and feelings (see II.53).

For example, most people, even most yoga practitioners, are under the impression that Asanas are merely external and physical. This sutra removes that misconception. Patañjali defines concentration as the focusing of attention either within or outside the body. If, in performing an Asana, one directs the organs of action and senses of perception towards the mind, and the mind towards the core, the external sadhana is transformed into internal sadhana. If the limbs, the senses of perception, the mind and the discriminative intelligence are then yoked and fused with the energy of the soul, this becomes the innermost sadhana. If one performs each Asana zealously, fusing with integrated attention the parts of the body, the wandering mind and the discriminative intelligence with the soul, is this not a spiritual practice?

Who has not noticed something of this process in watching children? Has not one seen a little boy with a passion for aeroplanes building his own model? His passionate interest fuels his concentration and he becomes totally absorbed in his task, oblivious of his surroundings. In Asana, our initial commitment or passion lifts itself, through concentration, to the level of total absorption. Such practice brings humility, without which penetration of the subtle levels is impossible.

dharana is the art of reducing the interruptions of the mind and ultimately eliminating them completely, so that the knower and the known become one (I.41).

dharana may be focused on external or internal objects. External objects should be auspicious and associated with purity. Internally, the mind penetrates to the soul, the core of one’s being: the object is, in reality, pure existence.

sri Vyasa’s commentary on this sutra indicates certain parts of the body as being suitable for concentration. They are the sphere of the navel (nabhicakra), the lotus of the heart (hrdaya punarika), the centre of the head (murdhani), the shining light (jyotisi or ajñacakra), the tip of the nose (nasikagra) and the root of the tongue (jihvagra). As attention is fixed on these inner points, one gradually becomes engrossed first in oneself (sasmita) and then in one’s soul, atman.

III.2 tatra pratyaya ekatanata dhyanam

tatra | there (in those places of concentration)
pratyaya | base, content, belief, going towards, firm conviction, device
ekatanata | continuous, uninterrupted flow of attentive awareness
dhyanam | meditation, reflection, profound contemplation

A steady, continuous flow of attention directed towards the same point or region is meditation (dhyana).

The characteristic feature of meditation (dhyana) is the maintenance of an uninterrupted flow of attention on a fixed point or region, without intervention or interruption. In dhyana, psychological and chronological time come to a standstill as the mind observes its own behaviour. The intensity of attention in the field of consciousness neither alters nor wavers, remaining as stable, smooth and constant as oil pouring from a jug. Maintaining the same intensity of awareness, the attentive awareness moves from one-pointed concentration to no-pointed attentiveness.

The difference between dharana and dhyana is that dharana is more concerned with the elimination of fluctuating thought-waves in order to achieve single-pointed concentration; in dhyana, the emphasis is on the maintenance of steady and profound contemplative observation.

Ekatanata implies an unbroken flow of contact between the sadhaka’s consciousness and his sadhana. We can see, therefore, that dhyana may be achieved in both Asana and pranayama. In Asana, there is a centrifugal movement of consciousness to the frontiers of the body, whether extended vertically, horizontally or circumferentially, and a centripetal movement as the whole body is brought into single focus. If the attention is steadily maintained in this manner, meditation takes place. Similarly, in pranayama, the flow of in- or outbreath is sensitively measured and sustained, resulting in total involvement with the self. During retention, when the breath, cells of the torso, consciousness and soul are brought into unison, meditation occurs. In short, when attention, reflection and contemplation in action and observation are steadily sustained, dharana evolves into dhyana (see I.2).

III.3 tadeva arthamatranirbhasam
svarupasunyam iva samadhih

tadeva | the same (dhyana)
artha | object, purpose, aim, end, wish, desire
matra | alone, only
nirbhasam | appearing, shining
svarupa | essential form, by itself
sunyam | empty, void
iva | as if, as it were
samadhih | perfect absorption, intent attention, union, bringing into harmony, spiritual absorption

When the object of meditation engulfs the meditator, appearing as the subject, self-awareness is lost. This is samadhi.

When the attentive flow of consciousness merges with the object of meditation, the consciousness of the meditator, the subject, appears to be dissolved in the object. This union of subject and object becomes samadhi.

When the object of contemplation shines forth without the intervention of one’s own consciousness, dhyana flows into samadhi.

When a musician loses himself and is completely engrossed in his music, or an inventor makes his discoveries when devoid of ego, or a painter transcends himself with colour, shade and brush; they glimpse samadhi. So it is with the yogi: when his object of contemplation becomes himself, devoid of himself, he experiences samadhi.

The difference is that the artist or musician reaches this state by effort, and cannot sustain it; whereas the yogi, remaining devoid of ego, experiences it as natural, continuous and effortless. Consequently it is difficult for an artist to infuse his vision of the sublime, which is associated with the performance and realization of a particular art form, into his ordinary daily existence. For the yogi, however, whose ‘art’ is formless and whose goal has no physical expression like a painting, a book or a symphony, the fragrance of samadhi penetrates every aspect of his ‘normal’ behaviour, activities and state of being.

Uninterrupted flow of attention dissolves the split between the object seen and the seer who sees it. Consciousness appears to have ceased, and to have reached a state of silence. It is devoid of ‘I’, and merges into the core of the being in a profound state of serenity. In samadhi, awareness of place vanishes and one ceases to experience space and time.

In 1.27–28, Patañjali deals with japa (prayer), artha (meaning and purpose) and bhavana (feeling or experiencing). Japa of mantra may be associated with dharana; artha with dhyana, and bhavana with samadhi.

(See also 1.41 and 43.)

III.4 trayam ekatra samyamah

trayam | these three
ekatra | jointly, together
samyamah | defining, holding together, integration

These three together – dharana, dhyana and samadhi – constitute integration or samyama.

samyama is a technical word defining the integration of concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and absorption (samadhi). In samyama the three are a single thread, evolving from uninterrupted attention to samadhi.

dharana is single-pointed attention. It modifies into dhyana by being sustained in time whilst dissolving its one-pointed character implicit in the word ‘concentration’. When it becomes all-pointed, which is also no-pointed (that is to say equally diffused, but with no drop in attentiveness) it leads to total absorption (samadhi). Continuous prolongation of these three subtle aspects of yoga thus forms a single unit, called samyama. Samyama, is a state of immobility, and a samyami is one who subdues his passions and remains motionless.

The following analogy shows the organic relationship between dharana, dhyana and samadhi. When one contemplates a diamond, one at first sees with great clarity the gem itself. Gradually one becomes aware of the light glowing from its centre. As awareness of the light grows, awareness of the stone as an object diminishes. Then there is only brightness, no source, no object. When the light is everywhere, that is samadhi.

As dharana is external to dhyana, dhyana to samadhi, samadhi to samyama and samyama to nirbija samadhi, so the mind is external to intelligence, intelligence to consciousness and consciousness to the seer.

dharana brings stability in mind, dhyana develops maturity in intelligence and samadhi acts to diffuse the consciousness.

dharana, dhyana and samadhi intermingle to become samyama, or integration. The intermingling of mind, intelligence and consciousness is samyama of the three. The vision of the seer is equivalent to nirbija samadhi.

III.5 tajjayat prajñalokah

tad | from that
jayat | by mastery, by attainment, conquest
prajña | awareness, wisdom, judgement, discrimination
alokah | light, lustre, insight

From mastery of samyama comes the light of awareness and insight.

When mastery of integration (samyama) is achieved, the lustre of wisdom and insight shine brilliantly, reconciling the known with the knowable and revealing the soul.

Awareness and cognition become firmer and sharper through direct spiritual perception.

Ordinarily, our intelligence flits from object to object and from place to place, making it impossible to penetrate fully any one thing. In samyama, the knower comes closer and closer to the known and, merging in it, loses his separateness.

(See I.47, III.36 and IV.29.)

11.6 tasya bhumisu viniyogah

tasya | its (samyama)
bhumisu | degree, step, stage
viniyogah | application

Samyama may be applied in various spheres to derive its usefulness.

Patañjali explains that this insight and wisdom are to be properly distributed in the various spheres of one’s life.

Samyama can be applied in various spheres. In samadhi pada, concepts such as pratyaya and various aspects of samprajñata samadhi and nirbija samadhi were explained (1.17–22 and 1.51). But one who has not mastered the lower stages cannot attain the higher, nor can he skip the intermediate stages. If each stage is followed in turn, one becomes acquainted with them by degrees and full insight develops.

Full insight may also dawn by the grace of God, won through one’s previous virtuous karmas. Vamadeva, Prahlada, sukadeva and Ramakrsna in the past, and Aurobindo, Ramana Maharsi and Mahatma Gandhi of the present century were such great personalities who had the blessings of God and attained fullness of knowledge.

This sutra affirms that no-one can expect success or mastery without regular practice, and also warns one not to jump to higher stages of practice without first establishing a firm foundation through the primary steps of yoga.

There are many examples, even in modern literature, of people quite unexpectedly experiencing samyama even if they have been following no fixed path of yogic discipline. The Japanese refer to this sudden lifting of the curtain of ignorance as a ‘flash’. This is undoubtedly a moment of grace, but it is not the same thing as enlightenment. If the recipient of this sudden grace is sensible, he will go back to the beginning, find a suitable path, and follow it assiduously even for many years, to construct consciously and by worthy effort what had once been yielded in a moment of grace.

The modern fancy of ‘kundalini awakening’ has probably arisen through these freakish experiences of ‘integration’. Patañjali does not mention kundalini but speaks of the energy of nature flowing abundantly in a yogi (IV.2). Kundalini is a neologism. This energy of nature (prakrti shakti) was originally known as agni or fire. Later yogis called this fire kundalini (the coiled one) as its conduit in the body is coiled 3½ times at the base of the spine. It is, however, clear that many who undergo an overwhelming experience of fusion with the universal consciousness reap, through their unpreparedness, more pain than benefit. To the lucky, healthy few such an experience can serve as a spur to begin a true spiritual search, but to many others it can bring severe physical and psychological disorders. The eightfold path, although it may appear mystical to the uninitiated, is ultimately a path of spiritual evolution whose motto might well be ‘safety first’. The foundation must be secure, as Patañjali emphasizes when he places yama and niyama first, and when he marks a definite step up between Asana and pranayama.

Vyasa has elucidated this sutra thus: ‘Yoga is to be known by yoga. Yoga is the teacher of yoga. The power of yoga manifests through yoga alone. He who does not become careless, negligent or inattentive, he alone rests in yoga and enjoys yoga.’

‘Yogena yogojñatavya yogo yogatpravartate
yo pramattastu yogena sa yogo ramate ciram.’

(See I.17, 40; II.27.)

III.7 trayam antaratgam purvebhyah

trayam | these three (dharana, dhyana and samadhi)
antaratgam | interior parts, the mind and the heart
purvebhyah | in relation to the preceding ones

These three aspects of yoga are internal, compared to the former five.

Compared to the former five aspects of yoga, it may be seen that dharana, dhyana and samadhi are more subtle, internal, intimate and subjective practices. The first five, which deal with the seen or cognizable sheaths, are called the external quest. Yama purifies the organs of action; niyama, the senses of perception; Asana cleanses the physical and organic aspects of the body; pranayama stops wastage of energy and increases stamina; pratyahara cleanses the mind.

More intimately, dharana develops and sharpens intelligence, dhyana purifies consciousness and samadhi leads consciousness towards the soul. These three are directly involved in the subtle sheaths of mind, intelligence and consciousness and are very close to the spiritual heart. They directly affect the spiritual path, and are therefore called the inner quest, or sabija samadhi, because the sadhaka now has one-pointed consciousness.

In samadhi pada, Patañjali explained that truth-bearing wisdom (rtambhara prajña) is the threshold between sabija and nirbija samadhis. Here he describes samyama as the penultimate step towards nirbija samadhi.

In the next sutra Patañjali explains that samyama is external to nirbija samadhi, and then proceeds, in III.9–16, to penetrate the transformations in the very substance of the consciousness, leading one to experience its finest state, which appears to be subtler than samyama.

III.8 tadapi bahirangam nirbijasya

tat | that
api | even, too
bahirangam | external part
nirbijasya | to the seedless

Similarly, samyama is external when compared to seedless (nirbija) samadhi.

Even this perfection of dharana, dhyana and samadhi appears external to one who has experienced the seedless samadhi, the direct vision of the soul.

Vyasa’s commentary on 1.2 divides citta into five states:

1 ksipta, a mental force which is scattered, in a state of disarray and neglect

2 mudha, a foolish and dull state

3 viksipta, agitated and distracted, neither marshalled nor controlled

4 ekagra, a state of one-pointed attention

5 niruddha, where everything is restrained, for the sadhaka to reach the threshold of kaivalya.

Sutras III.7–8 describe the distinction between sabija and nirbija samadhi. Sutra III.7 explains that the conquest of the vehicles of nature and of nature itself is of the foremost importance in opening the gates of kaivalya. In III.8 it is said that as samyama is dependent on a support or a form, it is called ‘external’ compared to nirbija samadhi. Once the vehicles of nature (body, organs of action, senses of perception, mind, intelligence, reason and consciousness) cease to function, the soul (atman) shines forth, and the sadhaka dwells in kaivalya and not on its threshold.

Sleep comes naturally when mental activities cease without effort. In the same way, perfection in sabija samadhi takes one towards the seedless state of samadhi or kaivalya, as effortlessly as falling asleep. The soul surfaces of its own accord.

(See I.16–18, I.41–45 and III.13.)

III.9 vyutthana nirodha sam skarayoh abhibhava
pradurbhavau nirodhaksata cittanvayah
nirodhaparinamah

vyutthana | emergence of thoughts, rising thoughts
nirodha | suppression, obstruction, restraint
samskarayoh | of the subliminal impressions
abhihava | disappearing, subjugating
pradurbhavau | reappearing
nirodha | restraint, suppression
ksata | moment
citta | consciousness
anvayah | association, permeation, pervasion
nirodha | restraint, suppression
parinamah | transformation, effect

Study of the silent moments between rising and restraining subliminal impressions is the transformation of consciousness towards restraint (nirodhaparinamah).

Transformation by restraint of consciousness is achieved by study of the silent moments that occur between the rising of impressions and our impulse to restrain them, and between the restraining impulse and the resurgence of thought.

The central thread of Patañjali’s philosophy is the relationship between the Self, purusa, and nature, prakrti. We are born into nature, and without it nothing would move, nothing would change, nothing could happen. We seek to free ourselves from nature in order to transcend it, to achieve lasting freedom.

Sensory involvement leads to attachment, desire, frustration and anger. These bring disorientation, and the eventual decay of our true intelligence. Through the combined techniques and resources of yama, niyama, Asana, pranayama and pratyahara we learn control. These are all external means of restraining consciousness, whether we focus on God, or the breath, or in an Asana by learning to direct and diffuse consciousness. All this learning develops in the relationship between subject and object. It is comparatively simple because it is a relative, dual process. But how can subject work on subject, consciousness on consciousness? How, in other words, can one’s eyes see one’s own eyes? In III.9–15 Patañjali shows the way.

One may well ask why one ought to do this. III.13–14 answer this question and enable one to identify, within one’s consciousness, the subtle properties of nature, to discriminate between them, and to distinguish between that which undergoes the stresses and changes of time and that which is immutable and permanent. In so doing we gain from the inner quest the same freedom from nature that we have struggled to achieve in the external. The freedom we gain from the tyranny of time, from the illusion that is absolute, is especially significant. Cutting our ties to sense objects within our consciousness carries immensely more weight than any severance from outside objects; if this were not so, a prisoner in solitary confinement would be halfway to being a yogi. Through the inner quest, the inner aspects of desire, attraction and aversion are brought to an end.

In III.4, Patañjali shows dharana, dhyana and samadhi as three threads woven into a single, integrated, unfolding strand. Then he introduces three transformations of consciousness related directly to them, and successively ascending to the highest level, at which consciousness reflects the light of the soul. These transformations are nirodha parinama, samadhi parintama and ekagrata pariñama. They are related to the three transformations in nature: dharma, laksana and avastha pariñama (III.13), resulting from our heightened perception, our penetration of nature’s reality on a higher level. The word transformation suggests to our imagination a series of steps in a static structure, but it is more helpful to conceive of a harmonious flux, such as that offered by modern particle physics.

Nirodha pariñama relates to the method used in meditation, when dharana loses its sharpness of attention on the object, and intelligence itself is brought into focus. In dharana and nirodha parinama, observation is a dynamic initiative.

Through nirodha parinama, transformation by restraint or suppression, the consciousness learns to calm its own fluctuations and distractions, deliberate and non-deliberate. The method consists of noticing then seizing and finally enlarging those subliminal pauses of silence that occur between rising and restraining thoughts and vice versa.

As long as one impression is replaced by a counter-impression, consciousness rises up against it. This state is called vyutthana citta, or vyutthana samskara (rising impressions). Restraining the rising waves of consciousness and overcoming these impressions is nirodha citta or nirodha samskara. The precious psychological moments of intermission (nirodhaksata) where there is stillness and silence are to be prolonged into extra-chronological moments of consciousness, without beginning or end.

The key to understanding this wheel of mutations in consciousness is to be found in the breath. Between each inbreath and outbreath, we experience the cessation of breath for a split second. Without this gap, we cannot inhale or exhale. This interval between each breath has another advantage: it allows the heart and lungs to rest. I call this rest period ‘savAsana’ of the heart and lungs.

The yogis who discovered pranayama called this natural space kumbhaka, and advised us to prolong its duration. So, there are four movements in each breath: inhalation, pause, exhalation and pause. Consciousness, too, has four movements: rising consciousness, a quiet state of consciousness, restraining consciousness and a quiet state of consciousness.

Inhalation actually generates thought-waves, whereas exhalation helps to restrain them (see I.34). The pauses between breaths, which take place after inhalation and exhalation are akin to the intervals between each rising and restraining thought. The mutation of breath and mutation of consciousness are therefore identical, as both are silent periods for the physiological and intellectual body. They are moments of void in which a sense of emptiness is felt. We are advised by Patañjali to transform this sense of emptiness into a dynamic whole, as single-pointed attention to no-pointed attentiveness. This will become the second mode – samadhi parinama.

The mind wavers like the waves of the sea, and we must make efforts to direct its attention to a chosen thought or object. In this process we often lose awareness on account of suppression and distraction. Having understood these silent intervals, we have to prolong them, as we prolong breath retention, so that there is no room for generation or restraint of thoughts.

(Lord Krsna says in the Gita that ‘What is night for other beings, is day for an awakened yogi and what is night for a yogi is day for others’ (II.69). This sutra conveys the same idea. When generating thoughts and their restraint keep the seeker awake, it is day for him, but night for the seer. When the seer is awake in the prolonged spaces between rising and restraining thought, it is day for him, but night for the seeker. To understand this more clearly, think of the body as a lake. The mind floats on its surface, but the seer is hidden at the bottom. This is darkness for the seer. Yoga practice causes the mind to sink and the seer to float. This is day for the seer.)

Just as one feels refreshed after a sound sleep, the seer’s consciousness is refreshed as he utilizes this prolonged pause for rejuvenation and recuperation. But at first, it is difficult to educate the consciousness to restrain each rising thought. It is against the thought current (pratipaksa) and hence creates restlessness, whereas the movement from restraint towards rising thought is with the current (paksa) and brings restfulness. The first method requires force of will and so is tinged with rajas. The second is slightly sattvic, but tinged with tamas. To transform the consciousness into a pure sattvic, state of dynamic silence, we must learn by repeated effort to prolong the intermissions (see I.14). If no impressions are allowed to intervene, the consciousness will remain fresh, and rest in its own abode. This is ekagrata parinama.

Some commentators equate nirodha parinama with asamprajñata samadhi (or manolaya) on the grounds that it implies the suppression of the ‘I’ consciousness. They maintain that it should come last and that the order of the sutras should therefore be reversed giving the sequence III.12, III.11 and finally, III.9. They thus place ekagrata parinama first, relating it to the one-pointed focusing of the mind in dharana. There is a similarity since the surface meaning of ekagrata does refer to one-pointed focusing on an object, but its deeper meaning is ‘one without a second’. There is the soul and nothing but the soul. When we recognize this profound meaning then the reason for Patañjali’s order is clear. Patañjali’s discussion of dharma, laksana and avastha parinamas (III.13) further clarifies this point.

Consciousness has three dharmic characteristics; to wander, to be restrained and to remain silent. The silent state must be transformed into a dynamic but single state of awareness. Patañjali warns that in restraint old impressions may re-emerge: the sadhaka must train to react instantly to such appearances and cut them off at their source. Each act of restraint re-establishes a state of restfulness. This is dharma parinama. When a serene flow of tranquillity is maintained without interruption then samadhi parinama and laksana parinama begin. During this phase the sadhaka may become trapped in a spiritual desert (see I.18). At this point he must persevere to reach oneness with the soul and abide in that state (avastha parinama) everlastingly. This final goal is reached through ekagrata parinama. (See I.20.)

Table 12: The order of transformations of citta and prakrti

III.10 tasya prasantavahita samskarat

tasya | its (nirodha parinama)
prasanta | tranquillity, a peaceful state
vahita | flow
samskarat | faculty of impressions, polished, refined

The restraint of rising impressions brings about an undisturbed flow of tranquillity.

By maintaining perfect awareness in the intervals between rising and restraining impressions, steadiness becomes effortless and natural. Then the stream of tranquillity flows without any ripples in the consciousness (III.9).

By skilful repeated efforts, consciousness is transformed, cultured, refined and polished. It develops freedom from all forms of fluctuations so that undisturbed peace may flow. As each drop of water helps to form a lake, so one must continue to prolong each tranquil pause between rising and restraining impressions. An adept of abhyasa and vairagya keeps himself steady, so that calmness can flow uninterruptedly. Thus he is freed from all previous impressions of consciousness.

The words used earlier by Patañjali for the state of tranquillity are citta prasadanam, adhyatma prasadanam, svarasa vahini and ananta samapattih. When disturbed consciousness is brought to an undisturbed state, it is citta prasadanam (favourable disposition of citta). When sorrows are conquered, it is svarasa vahini (flow of the soul’s fragrance). When exertion in search of the soul ceases, it is ananta samapattih (assuming the original and eternal form). Proficiency in meditation is adhyatma prasadanam (manifestation of the light of the soul). All convey the same meaning – that the seeker and the sought are one; that the seeker is the seer.

(See I.12, 33, 47; II.9, 47. IV.29, 32.)

III.11 sarvarthata ekagratayoh ksaya udayau cittasya samadhiparinamah

sarvarthata

all-pointedness, many-pointedness

ekagratayoh

one-pointedness

ksaya

decay

udayau

the rise

cittasya

of the consciousness

samadhi

spiritual absorption

parinamah

transformation

The weakening of scattered attention and the rise of one-pointed attention in the citta is the transformation towards samadhi.

Consciousness oscillates between multi-faceted and one-pointed attention. When one-pointed attention is established, multi-faceted attention disappears; when one-pointed attention fades, consciousness is scattered. Observing these alternations and learning to hold steadfastly to singlepointed attention is the second phase of the transformation: samadhi parinama.

Citta has two properties, dispersiveness (sarvarthata citta) and one-pointedness (ekagrata citta), with which it can direct its attention externally or internally. It can fuse these two powers into one, to move towards spiritual absorption.

Citta takes the form of any object seen, observed or thought of. It can spread itself as much as it desires. When it spreads, it is multi-faceted; when it remains steadily focused, it is one-pointed. When it is scattered, distraction and restlessness set in. This restlessness can be subdued, but nothing which exists can be destroyed; it can only be transformed: made to disappear or fade by thoughtful attention, enabling the stream of conscious restfulness to flow steadily. In this way, consciousness is influenced by its own action. It forms the habit of absorption in a single thought, which prepares one for spiritual absorption. This type of attention, samadhi parinama, stabilizes the state of restfulness.

In nirodha parinama, the emergence of thought-waves is restrained and stilled. In samadhi parinama, the intervals between the emergence and the restraint of thoughts and vice versa are studied. From this study emerges a stillness which leads to silence. One should know that stillness is rigidity and silence is passive and meditative. In the state of silence, the fragrance of the soul emerges as the centre of attention. This is ekagrata parinama, which is dealt with in the next sutra.

(See I.2, 5, 32, 43, 50.)

III.12 tatah punahsanta uditau tulya pratyayau cittasya ekagrataparinamah

tatah

then

punah

again

santa

subsiding state, quiescent state

uditau

rising state

tulya

similar

pratyayau

cognitions, means of action, cause

cittasya

of consciousness (mind)

ekagrata

(eka = singular, one, alone, unique, pre-eminent; agra = first, a resting place, base, prominent, excellent, best, chief and summit; ekagra = turned towards one point, intent upon one object: here, ekagra means the indivisible (abhedya) soul and the foundation of life) one-pointedness

parinamah

transformation

When rising and falling thought processes are in balance, one-pointed consciousness emerges. Maintenance of awareness with keen intensity from one-pointed attention to no-pointed attentiveness is ekagrata parinama.

Even in this focus on the property of citta alone, the sensitivity of attention may be intense or light. To maintain a steady, uninterrupted flow and intensity of attention in citta is the third phase of transformation.

At times, consciousness is thoughtfully silent but then it suddenly gushes out into vibrant activity. In a split second, this activity may be controlled and balance regained. This control requires effort, and effort involves time. By skilful practice, the depth of silence which at first appears only in glimpses, is made to permeate and fill the entire citta. Then the feeling of time disappears. Past and future are reabsorbed into the timeless.

Mind and time are interdependent. As the moments of the mind come to an end, so does time. Citta and the seer (atman) are the two sharp edges of a blade. In one-pointed attention (ekagrata samskara) the energies of the seeker and the seer become one. The seeker does, the seer is. To do plus to be equals to become: a dynamic quality of becoming ensues which has neither subject nor object. The focal point is now on the seer, for the seer, by the seer. This is ekagrata parinama.

When the state of restraint is reached (nirodha samskara), glimpses of silence are prolonged and fill the consciousness (samadhi samskara). Then the third phase of ekagrata samskara should be practised. Here, the consciousness which was dependent on external objects moves inwards to impregnate the seedless seat of the soul.

In III.9–12 Patañjali explains the three levels of transformation of consciousness in sequential order: nirodha, samadhi and finally ekagrata. Ekagrata, as explained earlier, has two meanings. One is concentration on a given object: at this external level, it has the same meaning as dharana. The other is ‘one without a second’: that is, the soul. This level of transformation of consciousness is the highest. I feel, therefore, that Patañjali’s meaning is this: ekagrata parinama is the final phase of the transformation in which consciousness is uplifted to the level of the soul, and is one with it.

(See I.47, 51; II.19–20.)

III.13 etena bhutendriyesu dharma laksana avastha parinamah vyakhyatah

etena

by this

bhutendriyesu

the elements, body and sense organs

dharma

propriety, law, duty, right, virtue, religion

laksana

character, mark, sign, quality, description

avastha

condition, state, position

parinamah

change, effect, transformation

vyakhyatah

visible, described, unfolded, enumerated

Through these three phases, cultured consciousness is transformed from its potential state (dharma) towards further refinement (laksana) and the zenith of refinement (avastha). In this way, the transformation of elements, senses and mind takes place. The three stages of transformation described in III.9–12 affect the entire being: organs, senses, body and mind, and bring about a stable, steady state of consciousness.

Both purusa and prakrti are eternal. Purusa remains eternally changeless. Prakrti goes on eternally changing due to the interaction between its own gunas of sattva, rajas and tamas.

Earth, water, fire, air and ether; their counterparts smell, taste, sight, touch and sound; the senses of perception and organs of action; mind, intelligence, consciousness and ego are all parts of nature. Ego, consciousness and intelligence are sensitive and subtle. They accumulate experiences of objects perceived through the senses of perception, organs of action and mind. These experiences vary according to their relation to circumstances. In this way, consciousness is limited by the qualities of nature. It is also linked with time as it oscillates with thoughts of past, present and future.

By disciplined study and effort, experiences are observed to move qualitatively towards the best.

Through study one realizes that consciousness has four tendencies or attributes. The first, when avidya is predominant, is its wandering nature, vyutthana samskara. The dawning power of discrimination leads to the second tendency: restraint, nirodha samskara, dharma parinama. The effect of restraint is the flow of tranquillity (prasanta vahita samskara), experienced between vyutthana and nirodha samskaras. This is the third tendency: laksana parinama. The effort to prolong this silent intermission brings the sadhaka to the zenith of emancipation (avastha parinama), the fourth or final attribute of consciousness.

When consciousness loses all these tendencies and becomes pensive, it rests in the seer. This affects the behavioural patterns in the body, senses and mind, which also remain peaceful. Consciousness becomes pensive. This wholly peaceful state is ekagrata parinama. By thoughtful action, consciousness traces the source of its attributes, moves towards it, and is dissolved therein. At that moment, body, senses and mind are devoid of evolution and dissolution, of birth and death. This is viveka khyati (II.26). The sadhaka transforms himself to an exalted state (dharma parinama), develops awareness of perfection (laksana parinama) and maintains himself without losing the acquired perfection (avastha parinama).

The two analogies that follow will help to explain the concepts of property (dharma), changes (laksana) and condition (avastha).

The dust of clay is formed into a lump, to make a pot. The dust of the clay is its property (dharma), the lump is the modification (laksana) and the pot is the final condition (avastha). If the potter wants to change the pot’s pattern, he breaks it down to its original state for re-shaping it. It is the same with a gold ring. To remake it, the goldsmith has to melt it down to its original state.

A man may be a son, brother, nephew, brother-in-law, son-in-law, father, uncle, father-in-law, or grandfather, but he is still the same man. The man is the dharma, the original substance; his different relationships with others the laksana; and his culminating state the avastha.

Dharma parinama is the knowledge of prakrti and purusa; laksana parinama is the way one makes use of them; and avastha parinama is steadily maintaining them, once they have been cleansed of trial and error, in the established state. In this way the elements, organs of action, senses of perception and mind are transformed: purusa is recognized and understood. All these transformations are stabilized, and the changing states in body, mind and ego come to an end, enabling the sadhaka to rest in the eternal changeless purusa. The search terminates and the duality between the seeker and the sought ends as the seer realizes that he alone was the seeker, seeking his own form, svarupa. From now on, he drinks the nectar of his own self-generating pure fragrance.

These three phases of conscious transformation culminate in tranquillity. Awareness flows peacefully, and virtue arises as dharma parinama. This is the true character of intelligence and consciousness. Now, the sadhaka is highly cultured and civilized. This is laksana parinama. Maintaining this qualitative state of conscious progression towards the zenith is avastha parinama (see I.3; II.15, 18, 19, 20; III.5, 45 and 48.)

III.14 santa udita avyapadesya dharma anupati dharmi

santa

appeased, allayed, calmed, quietened, pacified

udita

rise, ascended, manifested

avyapadesya

not defined, latent, lying in potential form

dharma

propriety, usage, law, duty, religion, virtue

anupati

closely followed, common to

dharmi

virtuous, just, religious, characterized

The substrata is that which continues to exist and maintain its characteristic quality in all states, whether manifest, latent, or subdued.

Table 13: The four planes of consciousness

The inherent characteristic quality of nature (mula-prakrti) has three properties: pacified or calmed (santa), manifested (udita) or latent (avyapadesya). They appear indistinctly or clearly according to one’s intellectual development.

The substratum of nature remains the same for all time, though transformations take place. The moulding of consciousness takes place owing to the changes in the gunas of nature.

In III.9 Patañjali explains the three phases of consciousness as rising, being restrained and the pauses between the two. In III.10, he describes these pauses as tranquil consciousness. If these pauses are prolonged, all pointedness and one-pointedness meet, and there is no room for rising or subsiding of thoughts (III.11). Sutra III.12 explains that maintaining these quiet moments brings about a balanced state of consciousness, which is described in III.13 as a cultured and harmonious state. Rising and restraining thoughts are the tendencies (dharma) of the citta, and the tranquil state is its characteristic quality (dharmi).

The rising citta is felt in the sensory body. Citta then appears at the external level as bahiranga citta. Watching the movement of rising thoughts is an external or bahiranga sadhana. The delicate restraint of rising thoughts moves citta inwards from the peripheral body: this is inner or antaranga sadhana. Stabilizing the tranquillity that takes place in the intervals is innermost or antaratma sadhana: that state is considered to be an auspicious moment of consciousness. It is like re-discovering the dust which existed before the pot.

From III.9 to III.14, we learned that consciousness has three phases, external, internal and innermost. As we trace and retrace these, we see their relevance to our practices of Asana, pranayama and meditation, in which consciousness moves from the skin inwards, and each cell and fibre is infused with the tranquillity of the seer.

Today, everyone is aware of constant ‘stress and strain’ in life. These aspects of consciousness which complicate life are by no means new to mankind. Patañjali’s word vyutthana, used to designate the ‘emergence of rising thought’, is equivalent to the appearance of ‘stress’. Nirodha, ‘restraint of rising thought’ is equivalent to the ‘strain’ of trying to control that stress. Striking the balance between the two is called ‘relaxation’ (santi citta). Restraining of rising thought is against the current (pratipaksa). Hence restraint is strain.

A person who has undergone childhood is santa, because that childhood stage has passed and is over. As one stands at the threshold of youth, he is in the present or udita state. In course of time, one moves towards old age, which has yet to come: this is avyapadesya, old age which is still in an unmanifested form and indistinct. But the person remains the same through all these changes. That unchanging person is dharmi. Similarly, milk is the property which separates into curds and whey, or changes into butter. It is the same with dust, which is formed into clay to make a jar. The dust stands for the past, the clay for the present, the jar for the future. Thus all changes from the source move in time as past, present and future.

In II.18, the properties of nature are explained as luminosity (prakasa), vibrancy (kriya) and inertia (sthithi). By the use of these qualities, one may be enmeshed in a mixture of pleasure and pain, or go beyond them to unalloyed bliss.

The properties of nature exist for the purpose of one’s evolution and involution. Consciousness, being a part of nature, is bound by the spokes of the wheel of time.

If an aspirant sows the right seed through knowledge and discrimination (viveka) and develops consciousness, he reaps the fruit of self-realization through ekagrata. He becomes the force which distinguishes between the hidden properties and the transformations of nature. He recognizes his true, pure state of existence which is changeless and virtuous. This is the fruit earned through the judicious effort of sadhana.

The import of this sutra can be used to practical advantage while practising Asana, pranayama or meditation. If we observe the various scattered dust cells lying latent in the body, and charge them so that they cohere (lump of clay), we can feel the inner unity and transform body, breath and consciousness into designs in the form of different Asanas and pranayamas, as the potter forms his clay into a variety of shapes.

In Asana, if the energy of the body is harmonized to a ‘point zero’ whilst in a state of tension, we reach precision. The same can be applied to the intake of breath, its distribution or discharge in pranayama, and in meditation. The combining of single-pointed attention with all-pointed attention at the core of one’s being is the essence of this sutra.

‘Point zero’ indicates the point of balance and harmony at which we can unlock and liberate the knotty confusion of matter and emotion. It also conveys the importance of finding the exact centre of the meeting points of vertical extension and horizontal expansion in body, breath and consciousness.

III.15 krama anyatvam parinama anyatve hetun

krama

going, proceeding, advancing, regular course, method, order of sequence, succession

anyatvam

different, distinct

parinama

change, transformation, effect

anyatve

different, distinct, variant

hetuh

cause, reason

Successive sequential changes cause the distinctive changes in the consciousness.

Differences in changes in consciousness are caused by the changing order of sequence in the method of practice.

According to the sequence of practice, distinct transformations take place.

Krama means regular sequence. Let us return to our earthenware pot, and look at the clay dust as the first principle of evolution, which has a property (dharma), the lump of malleable clay which embodies the qualitative mark (laksana), and the jar which culminates the process and which represents the evolved state (avastha). Only by following a certain sequence of actions can we turn earth into pottery. This is harmonious and organic growth.

In yoga practice a regular sequence must also be followed. The sadhaka first acquires restraint in consciousness (nirodha parinama) in order to experience tranquillity (samadhi parinama). Then he proceeds towards the ‘one without a second’, the seer (ekagrata parinama). Only then does he become a fulfilled yogi (krtarthan) (see I.18, 19, and IV.32).

Although consciousness may be considered partly to exist outside time, the work needed to transform that consciousness definitely exists inside the framework of time. It may well be that there is an evolutionary ‘tilt’ to the cosmos by which all things tend to evolve for the better in the long run. But we cannot count on that, and so some individual effort is necessary, especially as the world itself, the only known theatre of action for this evolutionary drama, is now in danger from man’s excesses of pollution, greed and war. Such was not the case in Patañjali’s day, yet he saw fit to furnish us with an exact evolutionary map so that our advance might be orderly and expeditious.

There is a logic to the involutionary spiritual journey, just as there is in the growth of a plant from seed, to stem, to bud, to flower, to fruit. The Original, pure consciousness which we trace through Patañjali’s method is the seed of transformation in oneself. Our own self is the maker of our own spiritual destiny.

The importance of structure and sequence can be shown in the example of language-learning.

If we set out to learn a language without structured tuition, we may learn it or we may not. It is a ‘hit or miss’ process. But if we seek to learn in a structured way, there is a definite order of procedure. We start with the present tense of the verbs ‘to be’ and ‘to have’ and certain basic nouns and prepositions. To start with complex grammatical forms would be ludicrous and self-defeating. The structure of evolution and progress in all things has its own inner logic and harmony. This is sequence, or krama.

III.16 parinamatraya samyamat atita anagatajñanam

parinama

change, transformation, effect

traya

threefold

samyamat

integration, control

atita

past

anagata

future

jñanam

knowledge

By mastery of the three transformations of nature (dharma), quality (laksana) and condition (avastha), through samyama on the nirodha, samadhi, and ekagrata states of consciousness, the yogi acquires knowledge of the past and the future.

Now Patañjali explains the properties of yoga, commonly known as supernatural powers, which accrue by transformations of consciousness.

In III.14, the words santa (appeasement), udita (generation) and avyapadesya (non-manifestation) were used for the past, present and future. III.15 speaks of the order of sequence from the source (dharmi), involving time and effort for transformation. By following this order, the sadhaka observes the natural flow of the present moving into the past, to manifest later as the future, and thereby gains mastery over time.

In this sutra, Patañjali begins to identify the accomplishments which come to the aspirant who has advanced in yogic discipline. The first is the awareness of time. The yogi’s consciousness has crossed the frontier of time: he sees time as ever flowing. Hence he has knowledge of past and future. (Present time is deliberately not mentioned, because its presence is felt.) He perceives the orderly sequence of the present slipping into the past, and rolling towards the future; he knows time, its meaning and its impact.

The so-called supernatural powers, discussed from III.16 to III.50, are evidence that the sadhaka’s yoga practices are correct. He is advised to intensify them with sustained faith and enthusiasm and to be indifferent to his achievements, so as to avoid deteriorating into affliction, fluctuation and self-gratification.

(see IV.1 and 28.)

III.17 sabda artha pratyayanam itaretaradhyasat satDkarah tatpravibhaga samyamat sarvabhuta rutajñanam

sabda

word, sound

artha

object, purpose, meaning

pratyayanam

feelings, emotions, ideas, contents

itaretara

one for the other

adhyasat

superimposing, coinciding

sankarah

mixing together, intermixture, becoming one

tat

their

pravibhaga

distinction, differentiation, resolution

samyamat

restraint, check, control, subdue, govern

sarva

all

bhuta

living beings

ruta

sounds, speech

jñanam

knowledge

Words, objects and ideas are superimposed, creating confusion; by samyama, one gains knowledge of the language of all beings.

Conventional usage of a word, its fundamental meaning, content and feeling may all coincide, or may be confused due to intermixture or superimposition. The same word may convey altogether different meanings in another language. A perfect yogi acquires accurate knowledge of the meaning and feeling of any sound or word, in any language produced by any being.

For example, Jesus’s disciples are said to have received the gift of speaking in all languages.

We do not ordinarily differentiate between a word, its original purpose and meaning, and its contemporary usage; they are considered by those of average intellect to coincide. A cultured intellect, however, may penetrate deeply to understand just what is conveyed by the sound, meaning and sense of a word. An accomplished yogi intuitively perceives and precisely distinguishes the meaning and feeling of each word or sound uttered by any living being, according to how they express themselves.

III.18 samskara saksatkaranat purvajatijñanam

samskara

subliminal impressions, instinct, realization of past perception

saksatkaranat

to see in reality, by direct observation, by direct perception, by bringing to the surface of consciousness

purva

earlier, previous

jati

descent, status in life, lineage, condition, rank, birth

jñanam

knowledge

Through direct perception of his subliminal impressions, the yogi gains knowledge of his previous lives.

The yogi is able to recollect the impressions of past incarnations which have moulded his present life. In the continuity of life, instinct, memory and desire play important roles. Memory belongs to the subconscious mind, and the fruits of desires (pains and pleasures experienced in the present life as a result of good and bad actions in past lives) to the unconscious.

When a yogi is free from all instincts and desires, he sees directly, independent of memory, and of feelings of joy or sorrow. Through intuition, in the orderly sequence of time, he actually sees his past lineage and future status, and also the lives of others.

(See II.12, 13, 39, and IV.33.)

III.19 pratyayasya paracittajñanam

pratyayasya

conception, idea, perception

para

of others, another’s

citta

mind, consciousness

jñanam

knowledge

He acquires the ability to understand the minds of others.

Through his purity of consciousness, the yogi realizes directly the nature of his own mind and consciousness, and also that of others.

The word saksatkaranat, used in III.18, means seeing reality. The word pratyaya means perceiving the content of the mind. Both convey the same meaning. By mastery over his own mind and consciousness, the yogi develops clairvoyance and can read the minds of others.

III.20 na ca tat salambanam tasya avisayi bhutatvat

na

not

ca

and

tat

that (knowledge)

salambanam

support, use

tasya

that

avisayi

unperceived, beyond the reach of mind, not within the reach of

bhutatvat

in life

A yogi who is able to read the minds of others in general, can also, if necessary, precisely identify specific contents which are beyond the reach of the mind.

This sutra is sometimes omitted on the grounds that it is a later addition, the argument being that if, as the previous sutra says, the yogi is able to read minds in general then the contents of particular minds must be equally transparent. Some combine sutras 19 and 20 or omit sutra 20, interpreting it to mean that the yogi’s concentration is only on the idea in another’s mind and not on its supporting object. It is really immaterial. A true yogi, though he possesses the general and specific gifts of mental insight, is unlikely to waste his time looking into other people’s minds and risk losing the grace of yoga, except when he needs an exact knowledge of another’s motives to know how best to act towards that person. The sadhaka prefers to incline his attention towards those who are free of desire: his master’s mind, for example, so that his consciousness, by sympathetic attraction, may take on a more graceful disposition.

To gauge the mind of an individual requires more sensitivity than to sense the contents of mass consciousness. Successful politicians are said to be adept at the latter, but the former may be compared to a gallery visitor looking at an abstract painting, who attributes to the artist his own feelings as he tries to interpret it. A yogi would be able to penetrate the artist’s state of mind, and his exact thoughts and feelings while at work on the canvas.

III.21 kaya rupa samyamat tadgrahyasakti stambhe caksuh prakasa asamprayoge antardhanam

kaya

body

rupa

form

samyamat

constraint, control

tad

from that form

grahya

to be seized, taken, received, perceivable

sakti

power, capacity, emanation

stambhe

suspension

caksuh

eye

prakasa

light

asamprayoge

there being no contact

antardhanam

disappearance, invisibility

By control over the subtle body, the yogi can suspend at will the rays of light emanating from himself so that he becomes invisible to onlookers. He may again make himself visible by bringing back the power of perceptibility.

III.22 etena sabdadi antardhanam uktam

etena

by this

sabdadi

sound and others

antardhanam

disappearance

uktam

said, described

In the same way as described above, he is able to arrest sound, smell, taste, form and touch.

Some texts omit this sutra, on the grounds that if a yogi can manipulate appearance and disappearance of form, his ability to manipulate the other senses can be inferred.

III.23 sopakramam nirupakramam ca karma tatsamyamat aparantajñanam aristebhyah va

sopakramam

immediate effect, intensively operative, active

nirupakramam

slow in fruition, non-operative, dormant

ca

and, or

karma

action

tat

those, these, them

samyamat

by restraint, control, mastery

aparanta

death

jñanam

knowledge

aristebhyah

by portents, omens

va

or

The effects of action are immediate or delayed. By samyama on his actions, a yogi will gain foreknowledge of their final fruits. He will know the exact time of his death by omens.

The fruits of action (karmaphala) are linked to time (kala phala). If a piece of wet cloth is fully spread out, it dries quickly; if folded or rolled up it takes a long time to dry. Similarly, the fruits of action may be felt immediately or at a later time.

Omens or premonitions of death are of three types. They may strike one directly by intuition, by elemental disturbances, and through the voice of the divine. For example, if one no longer hears the vibrations of the body, or cannot see a finger held before the eyes, it is an omen of approaching death.

Those who know something of Indian philosophy will probably be aware of sañcita karma, prarabdha karma and kriyamata karma, the three types of actions which bear fruit. The first is the merit or demerit accumulated from former lives. The second refers specifically to the good or bad actions which have formed our present life. The third we generate by our actions in this life. The effects of kriyamata karma are to come later: we can therefore assume that Patañjali has included kriyamata karma and sañcita karma in the category of nirupakrama, and prarabdha karma in sopakrama.

(See II.12, 14; III.15, 18; IV.7.)

III.24 maitryadisu balani

maitri

friendliness

Adisu

so forth

balani

strength, power (moral and emotional)

He gains moral and emotional strength by perfecting friendliness and other virtues towards one and all.

The yogi who perfects friendliness, compassion and benevolence, and who regards things impartially without becoming involved, keeps his consciousness free of desire, anger, greed, lust, pride and envy. With his mind cleansed of such weaknesses, an amiability evolves which spreads happiness to all. His equipoise of mind creates a graceful disposition of heart.

(See I.33.)

III.25 balesu hasti baladini

balesu

by samyama on strength

hasti

elephant

bala

strength (physical and intellectual)

adini

the others

By samyama on strength, the yogi will develop the physical strength, grace, and endurance of an elephant.

By samyama (integration), the yogi may acquire the strength and grace of an elephant, or if he wishes, develop his powers so as to become the strongest of the strong, the most graceful of the graceful, the swiftest of the swift.

III.26 pravrtti aloka nyasat suksma vyavahita vipraKrsnajñanam

pravrttyah

the super-sensory activity, super-sense perception

aloka

light

nyasat

directing, projecting, extending

suksma

small, fine, subtle

vyavahita

hidden, veiled, concealed

vipraKrsna

remote, distant

jñanam

knowledge

Concealed things, near or far, are revealed to a yogi.

By integration of the inner light, that is, the insight of the soul, a yogi develops super-sensitive powers of perception. Such insight brings the power of seeing things which are subtle and fine, concealed or at a distance.

(See III.34.)

III.27 bhuvanajñanam surye samyamat

bhuvanajñanam

knowledge of the worlds

surye

on the sun

samyamat

by constraint, by integration

By samyama on the sun the yogi will have knowledge of the seven worlds, and of the seven cosmic centres in the body.

As the sun illumines the world with its rays, so the light of the soul reaches the sahasrara, the thousand-petalled cakra, also known as brahmakapala. The yogi knows the functions of both the outer and the inner worlds.

According to Indian philosophy, there are fourteen worlds or divisions of the universe: seven above and seven below. Those above are called the aerial region. They are bhuloka, bhuvarloka, suvarloka, mahaloka, janoloka tapoloka and satyaloka. Those below are the nether region. They are atala, vitala, sutala, rasatala, talatala, mahatala and patala. All these worlds are interdependent and interconnected.

As the microcosm represents the macrocosm, man’s body epitomizes the entire structure of the great universe. The fourteen worlds are represented in the various regions of the body from the crown of the head to the soles of the feet. Taking the bottom portion of the torso as the central point, the aerial regions are situated above, and the nether regions below it. The several aerial regions correspond as follows: pelvic region to bhuloka, navel to bhuvarloka, diaphragmatic to suvarloka, heart to mahaloka, neck to janoloka, eyebrow centre to tapoloka and crown of the head to satyaloka. The seven nether worlds are represented as follows: hips to atala, thighs to vitala, knees to sutala, calves to rasatala, ankles to talatala, metatarsals to mahatala and soles of the feet to patala.

According to yogis, within the aerial regions are the seven major cakras. They are muladhara (seat of the anus), svadhistana (sacral area), matipuraka (navel), anahata (heart), visuddhi (throat), ajña (eyebrow centre) and sahasrara (crown of the head). There are other cakras, such as surya (corresponding to the sympathetic nervous system), candra (parasympathetic nervous system) and manas (seat of the mind). All these are interconnected, like the solar system. The light that shines from the seat of the soul is the sun of life. It passes through surya nadi at the gates of surya cakra and illumines the seven states of awareness in the yogi’s consciousness (II.27).

Patañjali speaks not only of external, but of internal, achievements. He instructs the aspirant to direct his mind towards the inner body, to study and gain knowledge of the soul.

III.28 candre taravyuhajñanam

candre

on moon

tara

stars

vyuha

galaxy, system, orderly arrangement, disposition

jñanam

knowledge

By samyama on the moon, the yogi will know the position and system of the stars.

In the last sutra, the sun, surya, refers to the core of one’s being. The moon, candra, refers to the mind and consciousness. The solar plexus is situated in the region of the trunk; the lunar plexus has its seat in the cerebrum. By samyama on that region, the yogi gains further knowledge.

The brain is equated with the moon which cools the solar system; the lunar plexus maintains a steady, constant temperature in the body even though the seasonal temperature varies. It also controls and directs the parasympathetic system and regulates the functioning of the central nervous system.

The galaxies of stars stand for galaxies of thought-waves which, like stars, twinkle, disappear, reappear and shine forth once again.

III.29 dhruve tadgatijñanam

dhruve

fixed, firm, permanent, the Pole Star, era, tip of the nose

tat

from that, of their

gati

movement, course of events, fortune

jñanam

knowledge

By samhyama on the Pole Star, the yogi knows the course of destiny.

By samyama on the Pole Star (dhruva naksatra), a yogi knows the movements of stars and their effect on the events of the world. Dhruva also stands for the roof (ajña cakra) as well as the tip of the nose (nasagra). The yogi will know beforehand his own destiny as well as that of others.

King Uttanapada had two wives, Suniti and Suruchi. Though Suniti was the queen, the king was very fond of his second wife Suruchi. Each of them had a son. The elder one was Dhruva and the younger one was Uttama. One day Prince Uttama was playing sitting on his father’s lap. Dhruva too came to sit on his father’s lap; but Suruchi, the mother of Uttama pulled him away, scolding him that he had to do tapas to take birth in her in order to have the privilege. Dhruva went to his own mother, narrated the incident and begged her to permit him to go to the forest to do tapas and to gain the kingdom. It so happened that the saptarsis, the seven stars of the constellation Ursa Major, gave him a mantra and with that mantra, he steadfastly prayed to Lord Visnu to bless him with the kingdom. Lord Visnu was pleased by his steadfast tapas at such a youthful age; He granted his wish and named a star after him, Dhruva Naksatra, known to all of us as the Pole Star.

III.30 nabhicakre kayavyuhajñanam

nabhi

the navel

cakre

mystical centres, ‘wheels’, energy centres

kaya

the body

vyuha

system, disposition, orderly arrangement

jñanam

knowledge

By samyama on the navel, the yogi acquires perfect knowledge of the disposition of the human body.

By samyama on the navel area or nabhi cakra, also called manipuraka cakra, a yogi can gain perfect knowledge of the constitution of the human body. He knows the activities of his each and every cell and therefore becomes a master of his own body.

According to yoga texts, the navel is known as kandasthana (kanda = egg or bulb; sthana = region). The root of all the nerves is in the navel. From the navel, 72,000 root nerves (in hatha yoga terminology, nanis) branch out. Each root nerve is connected with another 72,000 nerves. These 72,000 multiplied by another 72,000 branch off into various directions, supplying energy to the entire system. The navel is considered to be the pivot of the sympathetic, and the brain of the parasympathetic nervous system.

Let us recall the five kosas, or sheaths of the body.

The anatomical sheath consists of seven substances: skin, blood, flesh, sinew, bone, marrow and semen. They function in combination with the three humours: wind (vata), bile (pitta) and phlegm (slesma or kapha).

The physiological sheath consists of the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, endocrine, lymphatic, nervous, and reproductive systems. The psychological sheath is the seat of motivation; the intellectual sheath reasons and judges. The spiritual sheath, body of bliss, is also called the causal body.

Only the yogi can know the fine dividing line between body and mind, mind and soul, and become master of himself.

III.31 katthakupe ksutpipasa nivrttih

kattha

throat

kupe

the pit, the well

ksut

hunger

pipasa

thirst

nivrttih

subdued, conquered

By samyama on the pit of the throat, the yogi overcomes hunger and thirst.

By samyama on the pit of the throat (khecari mudra), a yogi can arrest pangs of hunger and thirst and conquer them.

Kattha kupa stands for the visuddhi cakra of later yoga texts, which is said to be situated in the region of the pit of the throat. (Certain mudras, for example kaka mudra and khecari mudra, help to overcome hunger and thirst.)

III.32 kurmanadyam sthairyam

kurma

tortoise, name of a nerve

nanyam

nerve, a vessel

sthairyam

steadiness, immovability

By samyama on kurmanani, at the pit of the throat, the yogi can make his body and mind firm and immobile like a tortoise.

By mastery over kurma nadi, the yogi not only keeps his physical body immobile like a tortoise, alligator or snake, but also has the power to hibernate mentally by completely immobilizing the functions of the body and intellect. Kurma nadi corresponds to the epigastric region.

Kurma nadi is rather hard to locate in the human system. The teachers who knew about the nervous system may have recorded their knowledge, but their teachings have been lost over the centuries. Also, in those days, instructions were imparted orally, and in the communication gap between teacher and pupil the location of such nanis may have been forgotten.

The functions of the body are performed by five types of vital energy, Prana vayus: Prana, apana, samana, udana and vyana. Prana moves in the thoracic region and controls breathing. Apana moves in the lower abdomen and controls elimination of urine, semen and faeces. Samana stokes the gastric fire, aiding digestion and maintaining the harmonious functioning of the abdominal organs. Udana, working in the throat, controls the vocal chords and the intake of air and food. Vyana pervades the entire body, distributing the energy from the breath and food through the arteries, veins and nerves.

There are also five upavayus known as upa-Pranas. They are naga, krkara, devadatta, dhanamjaya and kurma. Naga relieves pressures of the abdomen by belching; krkara prevents substances from passing up the nasal passages and down the throat by making one sneeze or cough. Devadatta causes yawning and induces sleep. Dhanamjaya produces phlegm, nourishes the body, remains in it even after death and sometimes inflates a corpse. Kurma controls the movements of the eyelids and regulates the intensity of light for seeing by controlling the size of the iris. The eyes are the index of the brain. Any movement in the brain is reflected in the eyes. By stilling the eyes, i.e., by the control of kurma vayu, one can still one’s thoughts and make one’s brain immobile (see I.18–19).

(For details, see Light on pranayama.)

In yoga texts one can read of the main nanis such as ina, pitgala, susumna, citra, gandhari, hastijihva, pusa, yasasvini, alumbusa, kuhu, sarasvati, varuti, visodhari, payasvini, satDkhiti, subha, kausiki, sura, raka, vijñana, kurma and many others. The beginning and end of some of the nanis are described; for others, only the end points are recorded. The functions of some are dealt with, others are not. Kurma nadi’s functions are explained but not its source or its terminus. This nani may represent the epigastric region, and may directly affect emotional upheavals and their control.

One’s mental functions revolve mainly around lust, anger, greed, infatuation, pride and envy, considered the enemies of the soul. They are represented by the four legs, mouth and tail of the tortoise. The tortoise draws its head and limbs into the shell and does not come out, come what may. By mastery over the kurma nadi, the yogi stops the movements of these six spokes of the mind which are influenced by the qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas. He brings these enemies of the soul to a state of steadiness, and through the dominance of sattva guna transforms them into friends. He remains like a tortoise in his shell, his emotional centre undisturbed, under all circumstances. He has developed emotional stability, the prerequisite of spiritual realization.

III.33 murdha jyotisi siddha darsanam

murdha

the head

jyotisi

on the light

siddha

the perfected beings

darsanam

vision

By performing samyama on the light of the crown of the head (ajña cakra), the yogi has visions of perfected beings.

Siddhas are those who have perfected themselves in the field of enlightenment. Murdhajyoti represents the ajña cakra of the yoga texts.

A yogi can develop a balanced head and a poised heart, and from his visions of siddhas, yogis and acaryas (great teachers) he may obtain guidance and inspiration to further his sadhana.

III. 34 pratibhat va sarvam

pratibhat

the effulgent light, brilliant conception, intuitive knowledge, faculty of spiritual perception

va

or

sarvam

all, everything

Through the faculty of spiritual perception the yogi becomes the knower of all knowledge.

A yogi can intuitively perceive anything and everything. By samyama on the effulgent light, he becomes the knower of all knowledge. All knowledge is mirrored in a yogi.

In short, as day follows the dawn, impulsive nature is transformed into intuitive thought through which the yogi possesses universal knowledge. It is the conquest of nature.

III.35 hrdaye citta samvit

hrdaye

on the heart

citta

consciousness

samvit

knowledge, awareness

By samyama on the region of the heart, the yogi acquires a thorough knowledge of the contents and tendencies of consciousness.

The citadel of purusa is the heart. It is anahata cakra, the seat of pure knowledge as well as of consciousness. By samyama, a yogi can become aware of consciousness and of true, pure knowledge. He learns to unfold and tap the source of his being, and identify himself with the Supreme.

III. 36 sattva purusayoh atyanta asamkirtayoh pratyaya avisesah bhogah pararthatvat svartha samyamat purusajñanam

sattva

intelligence, one of the three gunas, certain, real, true

purusayoh

of the soul

atyanta

absolute, extreme

asamkirtayoh

distinct from each other, unmingled

pratyayah

awareness

avisesah

not distinct

bhogah

experience

pararthatvat

apart from another

svartha

one’s own, self-interest

samyamat

by constraint, control

purusajñanam

knowledge of the soul

By samyama, the yogi easily differentiates between the intelligence and the soul which is real and true.

Since it serves the purposes of the Self and nature, pure intelligence and the seer appear to be one, but they are quite distinct from each other. By samyama on that which exists for itself, comes knowledge of the soul.

The refined illuminative intelligence (sattva buddhi) is free from egoism. It is quite distinct from the light of the soul. Samyama on one’s own self brings to light the difference between intelligence and self and crowns the yogi with the knowledge of the soul. This sutra, by the use of the word svartha for the seer and parartha for the intelligence, clearly shows the difference between the two. Failure to discriminate between them leads to entanglement in worldly pleasures. Knowing the distinction enables one to enter the gates of the soul.

Though the refined illuminative intelligence is the pinnacle of nature, it is subject to varied experiences. The soul being immutable, its light is constant, steady and unalterable. To the sadhaka, the intellect appears to be purusa. By samyama, the yogi has to disentangle the knot that binds the intellect and the self, and isolate the refined intelligence. From this comes isolation of the senses, mind and ego, and finally the release of the light of the soul.

We rightly admire such men as Albert Einstein, Ramanuja, Arnold Toynbee, sakuntala Devi and C. G. Jung. Their towering intellects, directed to the service of humanity, inspire us all. Nevertheless, their spirituality was that of the refined illuminative intelligence belonging to human nature, and not that of the luminescent immutable purusa.

(See I.3; II.18, 20; III.35 and IV.34.)

III.37 tatah pratibha sravata vedana adarsa asvada vartah jayante

tatah

therefrom, thence

pratibha

light, faculty of spiritual perception

sravata

faculty of hearing, auditory sense

vedana

faculty of touch

adarsa

faculty of vision

asvada

faculty of taste

vartah

faculty of smell

jayante

produced

Through that spiritual perception, the yogi acquires the divine faculties of hearing, touch, vision, taste and smell. He can even generate these divine emanations by his own will.

Through the dawn of the self-luminous light of intuitive understanding, divine perceptions in hearing, feeling, seeing, tasting and smelling, beyond the range of ordinary perceptions, arise of their own accord.

As the mind is the centre of the functions of the senses of perception, it limits their powers of hearing, feeling, seeing, tasting and smelling. When the limitations of the mind are removed, the yogi contacts the very core of his being, and has direct, divine perceptions independent of the sense organs. He is able to hear, feel, see, taste and smell through unlimited space.

(See III.26 and 34.)

III.38 te samadhau upasargah vyutthane siddhayah

te

they (divine perceptions)

samadhau

in samadhi

upasargah

hindrances, obstacles

vyutthane

rising up, following one’s own inclination, outgoing mind

siddhayah

powers

These attainments are impediments to samadhi, although they are powers in active life.

Divine perceptions are hindrances to a yogi whose wisdom is supreme and whose goal is spiritual absorption. They are great accomplishments, but he should know that they fall within the range of the gunas of nature, and in acquiring them he might forget his main aim in life and luxuriate in them. If they are shunned, however, they become aids to samadhi.

The yogi may mistake these accomplishments and rewards for the end and aim of yogic practices. He may imagine that he has attained great spiritual heights, and that whatever is attainable through yoga has been achieved. In this way he may forget the goal of Self-Realization.

Patañjali warns yogis to treat these powers as obstacles in their sadhana. One should control them as whole-heartedly as one fought earlier to conquer the afflictions of the body and the fluctuations of the mind. Then one can move forwards towards kaivalya, emancipation.

III.39 bandha karana saithilyat pracara samvedanat ca cittasya para sarir avesah

bandha

bondage

karana

cause

saithilyat

laxity, relaxation

pracara

movement, passage, channel, flow

samvedanat

from knowing, from sensitivity

ca

and

cittasya

of the consciousness

para

another’s, other’s

sarira

body

avesah

entrance, occupation

Through relaxation of the causes of bondage, and the free flow of consciousness, the yogi enters another’s body at will.

A perfect yogi can enter the body of another individual or, in order to free himself from the bondage of karmas, he can leave his own body at will.

The yogi’s consciousness can enter the body of another when the cause of bondage (karmasaya) ceases and the knowledge of moving from one body into another is acquired. This is the conquest of the element of earth.

This is samyama on the causes of bondage: ignorance, egoism, desire, malice and fear of death.

It is said that sri sankaracarya did parakaya pravesa (para = other; kaya = body, and pravesa = entry), i.e., entered into another’s body.

There was a philosopher by the name of Matnana Misra in sri satDkara-carya’s time. He was a follower of purva mimamsa. He was very conscious of his duties and performed the sacred rituals regularly. He was a householder and his wife’s name was Bharati. She too was a learned lady, who had full knowledge of the sacred texts. People who heard sri satDkara’s philosophy of monism (advaita) maintained that if he could persuade Misra, a believer in rituals with many followers, to accept his philosophy and become a sannyasin (monk), it would assist sri satDkara to establish his teachings. He was also told that he could easily recognize Misra’s house as he would hear parrots chanting the Vedas at his doorstep.

sri satDkara wandered from place to place in search of Misra’s house. Hearing parrots chanting the Vedas, he realized he had arrived at the right place. Misra was performing rituals for his parents’ death anniversary. sri satDkara was made to wait till the ritual was over. Then they agreed to hold a debate on the respective merits of purva mimamsa and advaita. The stipulation was that if one of them was defeated in argument, he would embrace the other’s philosophy. They chose srimati Bharati, Misra’s wife to be the judge. She said that as she was busy with household affairs, she would garland both and whichever garland withered first, its wearer would be declared the loser. The arguments lasted for days. Slowly Misra’s garland began to fade, and Bharati declared that he had lost the debate. He accepted defeat and agreed to become sri satDkara’s pupil.

Then Bharati challenged sri satDkara: as the other half of her husband, he must debate with and defeat her, too, before they could become his pupils. She chose the subject and asked sri satDkara to debate on the experiences of the life of a householder. Being a monk, he was in a quandary. Though he was baffled at first, he accepted the challenge and asked for time. She consented to wait for a stipulated period. Through his insight he came to know that a king by the name of Amaraka was dying. sri satDkara told his pupils to hide his body in a safe place and to guard it until his return. Then, by his power of samyama on citra nadi (see Light on pranayama), he left his body and entered the dead body of the king. The king was revived and sri satDkara in the form of King Amaraka ruled the country. However, Amaraka’s queen became suspicious of the king’s behaviour as it was not the same as that of her husband. So the queen sent messengers to search for corpses and to bring them to the court at once. Coming to know of the queen’s plans, sri satDkara feared that the queen might destroy his original body. He at once left the king’s body which fell to the ground, and returned to his original body.

Then sri satDkara appeared before Bharati. She saw through her yogic powers that he now possessed the experiences of a householder, and accepted defeat.

After returning to the South from his triumphant tour of North India, sri satDkara built a sarada temple at srngeri in honour of Bharati, the great scholar. It is now one of the famous cloisters known as srngeri sankaracarya matha, a place for religious learning according to the teachings of sri sankaracarya.

III.40 udana jayat jala patDka kattak adisu asangah utkrantih ca

udana

one of the five Pranas or vital airs

jayat

by conquest, mastery

jala

water

patDka

mud

kattaka

thorns

adisu

and so forth, and the rest

asangah

non-contact

utkrantih

ascension, levitation, going up and beyond

ca

and

By mastery of udana vayu, the yogi can walk over water, swamps and thorns without touching them. He can also levitate.

By samyama on udana vayu, the yogi can make his body so light that he is able to walk over water, mud and thorns without coming in contact with them. He can make Prana ascend through brahmarandhra and so die at will.

It is said in III.37 that the yogi has the power of knowing the tanmatras, sound, touch, sight, taste and smell, which are the counterparts of the elements, while III.40–43 speak of the conquest of the elements water, fire, air and ether.

Prana is usually translated as ‘breath’, yet this is only one of its manifestations in the human body. If breathing stops, so does life. Ancient Indian sages knew that all functions of the body were performed by five types of vital energy (Prana vayus): Prana, apana, samana, udana and vyana. They are specific aspects of the one vital cosmic force, the primeval principle of existence in all beings. The functions of the five Prana vayus were described in III.32.

In pranayama, Prana vayu is activated by the inbreath and apana vayu by the outbreath. Vyana is essential for the functioning of Prana and apana, as it is the medium for transferring energies from one to the other. Udana raises the energy from the lower spine to the brain.

This sutra explains the powers gained by the yogi who masters udana vayu: he raises the energy, and is then able to walk over water.

(See Light on Yoga and Light on pranayama.)

The following are some stories illustrating the powers gained by various yogis.

In the 8th century, a saint by the name of Tirumangai Alwar was on a pilgrimage, visiting various famous temples in South India. Accompanying him were four disciples, each of whom was gifted with a miraculous power. One was able to fascinate with his power of speech. His name was Tolarvalla Van. The second, Taludhavan, could open any lock by the power of his breath. The third, Nilalai Pidippan, could stop people from moving by tapping on their shadows, while the fourth, Nirmel Nadappan by name, could walk over water.

Tirumangai Alwar and his disciples arrived at the most holy shrine of sri Ranganatha at srirangam on the bank of the river Kaveri. It was in a deplorable condition and the saint wanted to rebuild it. He asked a number of wealthy people for financial help, but no one responded to his appeal. He therefore made up his mind to become a leader of a band of robbers and asked his four pupils to use their powers to raise money for the temple. They obeyed the orders of their guru and collected money, materials and men for construction. It took years to complete the temple which is known as the seven walls of sriangam temple near Tiruchinapally (Trichy). When it was completed he gave up robbery, but the workers started pestering him for money. As he did not respond to their demands, they wanted to murder him. He asked them to go to the opposite bank of the river, where he had hidden some money, and to distribute it equally among themselves. Then he whispered to his pupil who could walk over water that he should take them in a boat and sink the boat in the middle of the river. Due to the rains, the river was in spate. The disciple obeyed the orders of his guru, took them all aboard the boat, sank it and rejoined his guru.

Sadanandacarya, a pupil of sri sankaracarya, walked over water at the call of his guru, who was on the other side of the river Ganga at Varanasi, modern-day Benares. People saw the imprints of his feet bearing a lotus flower, hence Sadanandacarya was known as Padmapadacarya (padma = lotus; pada = foot).

It is said that Brahmendra Svami, the guru of Bajirao I of Maharastra used to sit on a palm leaf and cross the sea. It is also related of Jesus Christ that he walked over a lake to meet his disciples who were waiting for him on the other side.

III.41 samanajayat jvalanam

samana

one of the five prana vayus

jayat

conquest, mastery

jvalanam

shining, burning, blazing, fire

By samyama on samana vayu, a yogi glows like fire and his aura shines.

By the conquest of samana vayu, the yogi gains control over the element of fire (tejastattva).

The middle of the torso is the region of samana which stokes the gastric fire, aiding digestion and maintaining harmonious functioning of the abdominal organs. It controls the functioning of the heart, and through it the life force.

Kapila, the founder of samkhya philosophy, seems to have had the power of emitting fire from his eyes, which burnt the sons of King Sagara. The Maharastrian saint Jñanesvar, who wrote a translation and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, also had this power. Nearer our time, it is said that a pupil of sri Ramakrsna used to light the path for his master on a dark night.

III.42 srotra akasayoh sambandha samyamat divyam srotram

srotra

of hearing

akasayoh

in space, ether

sambandha

relation

samyamat

by performing constraint

divyam

divine

srotram

power of hearing

By samyama on the relation between space and sound, the yogi acquires the power of hearing distant and divine sounds. The organ of hearing, the ear, grasps sound in space. This is the conquest of air.

III.43 kaya akasayoh sambandha samyamat laghutulasamapatteh ca akasagamanam

kaya

body

akasayoh

ether

sambandha

relation

samyamat

constraint

laghu

light

tula

cotton fibre

samapatteh

coalescence, becoming one

ca

and

akasa

space, levitation

gamanam

passage, going, movement, motion

By knowing the relationship between the body and ether, the yogi transforms his body and mind so that they become as light as cotton fibre. He can then levitate in space. This is the conquest of ether.

This is one of the supernatural powers called laghima, or becoming as light as cotton.

In the Puranas, it is said that Lord Hanuman (son of the Wind God) jumped up to the sky to fetch the sun, which he thought was an apple. There is also the story from the Ramayata that he leaped to the Himalayas to fetch the elixir of life, called sañjivani, to save the life of Lord Rama’s brother who was wounded in a fight with Ravata’s son. Narada, who composed the Bhakti Sutras, is said to wander in the three worlds from time immemorial to this day.

III.44 bahih akalpita vrttih mahavideha tatah prakasa avarataksayah

bahih

external, outside

akalpita

unimaginable, actual, inconceivable

vrttih

fluctuations, modifications

maha

great

videha

without a body

tatah

then

prakasa

light, illumination

avarana

covering

ksayah

destruction, dissolution

By samyama on mahavideha (the disembodied state), where consciousness acts outside the body, the veil covering the light of illumination is destroyed. By samyama on the consciousness, the yogi lives without a body; this is something that is unimaginable, yet it is a fact. It is a siddhi, called mahavideha siddhi or great discarnation. It removes the veil covering the light of illumination. The yogi in this state has true and pure intelligence.

If consciousness moves outside the body but abides in the body, it is called an imaginable state. When the same consciousness moves outside the body, independent of and without abiding in it, it is an unimaginable state. In mahavideha, the yogi disconnects his body from consciousness, so that afflictions do not influence him. He is beyond the gunas. In this non-attached state, citta becomes divine and universal and can absorb anything in space without the use of the body, senses, or ego.

From his biography, we know that Sri Aurobindo was in that state while imprisoned during the freedom movement.

(See I.19.)

III.45 sthula svarupa suksma anvaya arthavatva samyamat bhutajayah.

sthula

gross

svarupa

form, attributes

suksma

subtle

anvaya

all-pervasiveness, interpenetration, conjunction

arthavatva

purpose, fullness

samyamat

by restraint

bhutajayah

mastery over the elements

By samyama on the elements – their mass, forms, subtlety, conjunction and purposes, the yogi becomes Lord over them all.

By restraint, the yogi gains control over the gross and subtle elements of nature, their forms and gunas, as well as their purpose.

The Universe is made from the constituents of the basic elements of nature, earth (prthvi), water (ap), fire (tejas), air (vayu) and ether (akasa). Each element possesses five attributes, mass (sthula), subtlety (suksma), form (svarupa), all-pervasiveness or interpenetration (anvaya), and purpose or fruition (arthavatva).

The characteristic of the gross forms of elements are solidity, fluidity, heat, mobility and volume. Their subtle counterparts are smell, taste, sight, touch and sound. Their all-pervasiveness or interpentration are the three gunas, and their purpose is either worldly enjoyment or freedom and beatitude.

The earth element has five properties of sound, touch, sight, taste and smell. Water has four: sound, touch, sight and taste. Fire has three: sound, touch and sight. Air has sound and touch. Ether has only the one quality of sound (see ‘pranavah’, 1.27).

(See II.18–19.)

Table 14: The elements and their properties

III.46 tatah atimadi pradurbhavah kaasampat taddharma anabhighatah ca

tatah

from it, thence

animadi

powers such as minuteness and so forth

pradurbhavah

manifestation, appearance

kaya

of the body

sampat

perfection, wealth

tad

their, of them

dharma

attributes, functions

anabhighatah

non-resistance, non-obstruction, indestructibility

ca

and

From that arises perfection of the body, the ability to resist the play of the elements, and powers such as minuteness.

The yogi can reduce himself to the size of an atom, or expand. He can become light or heavy. He can pierce rocks, have access to everything and master everything.

From samyama on the elements, their counterparts, forms, conjunctions and fruits, the yogi develops the eight supernatural powers and gains perfect wealth of the body without falling victim to the obstacles posed by the elements. This is said to be the best wealth of the body: perfection and freedom from all hindrances.

This sutra indicates that by the conquest of the elements a yogi gains mastery in three fields. The first is the acquirement of the eight supernatural powers. The second is perfection of the body, which means that earth does not soil him, water dampen him, or fire burn him. Wind cannot move him and space can conceal his body anywhere at any time. The third is immunity from the play of the elements and their characteristics, and from the obstructions and disturbances which they create.

(See 1.30, 31, 40; 11.55.)

III.47 rupa lavanya bala vajra samhananatvani kayasampat

rupa

graceful forms, appearance

lavanya

grace, beauty, charm, loveliness, ability to attract

bala

strength, force

vajra

a thunderbolt, adamantine, hard, diamond, impenetrable

samhananatvani

firmness, compactness

kaya

body

sampat

perfection, wealth

Perfection of the body consists of beauty of form, grace, strength, compactness, and the hardness and brilliance of a diamond.

(For details, see Art of Yoga.)

III.48 grahana svarupa asmita anvaya arthavattva samyamat indriyajayah

grahana

power of cognition

svarupa

real appearance, natural state, one’s form, one’s visage

asmita

egoism, the individual self

anvaya

conjunction

arthavattva

purposefulness, reason for being

samyamat

by constraint

indriya

senses

jayah

conquest

Through samyama upon the purpose of the conjunction of the process of knowing, the ego, and nature, there is mastery over the senses.

By samyama upon the natural states of the senses of perception, their function and receptivity with or without their conjunction with nature and the perception of the individual self (asmita), the yogi recognizes the purpose of the conjunction of nature, senses and self and acquires mastery over them all.

Having in III.47 discussed the excellence of the body, Patañjali now speaks of the wealth of the senses.

This sutra is both complementary and supplementary to III.45, in which the five qualities of the natural elements were objectively categorized. Here Patañjali describes the five specific qualities, particularly in relation to the senses of perception and the ego. The properties of the senses of perception are: knowing their own natural state; cognition or recognition of external objects; the reason for this contact; and the involvement of the individual self in these states, which change it from objective to subjective.

Everything we experience in the universe is transmitted through the medium of the senses to the ‘I’ consciousness. The senses by their nature are attracted to worldly objects conducive to pleasure, and their yearning for more and more entangles them. At some stage, when the senses are appeased, they and the organs of action become passive, and a state of quietness is experienced. An ordinary individual will go on following the senses when they are again aroused to their pursuit of pleasure, but the cultured intelligence will reflect, and consider that it is possible to turn inwards. This reflection on the receptivity of the senses and mind can now be diverted and directed by the intelligence toward exploring the realm of the seer so that senses, mind and ego are brought to rest permanently in the abode of the soul.

(See II.6, 21, 22; IV.4.)

III.49 tatah manojavitvam vikaranabhavah pradhanajayah ca

tatah

thence, from it, therefrom

manojavitvam

quickness of mind, speed of mind

vikaranabhavah

feeling of change, modification, without the help of the senses, freedom from the senses of perception.

pradhana

first cause, chief, main, pre-eminent, most excellent, best, first cause, primary or original matter.

jayah

mastery, conquest

ca

and

By mastery over the senses of perception, the yogi’s speed of body, senses and mind matches that of the soul, independent of the primary causes of nature. Unaided by consciousness, he subdues the first principle of nature (mahat).

When the properties of nature have been conquered, and both body and consciousness purified, the self perceives directly and quickly, independent of nature. Body, senses, mind and consciousness stand equal to the seer in their movements, and the soul drinks its own sweetness. Sage Vyasa, commenting on this state, calls it madhu pratika (madhu = sweetness, honey; pratika = turned towards). The taste of honey is the same from whichever side of the comb it is drawn. Similarly, the organs of action and senses of perception, body and mind are made as pure as the soul when they are transformed to the level of the soul. In this spiritual elation, they lose interest in sensual gratification and pleasure. Each cell reflects the light of the pure Self and each cell drinks the nectar of the soul. This is madhu pratika.

(See I.41, 48; III.26, 37.)

III.50 sattva purusa anyata khyatimatrasya sarvabhava adhisthatrtvam sarvajñatrtvam ca

sattva

pure, illuminative

purusa

soul

anyata

distinction, discrimination, difference

khyati

awareness, understanding knowledge

matrasya

only, of that

sarva

all

bhava

manifestations, states

adhisthatrtvam

supremacy, overlordship

sarvajñatrtvam

all knowingness, omniscience

ca

and

Only one who knows the difference between the illuminative intelligence and the seer attains supreme knowledge of all that exists and all that manifests.

The yogi distinguishes between intelligence, consciousness, ego and the soul. Through knowledge of the soul, he gains mastery over all states of manifestations and becomes master of all knowledge. He is omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient.

He alone is the observer, perceiving everything directly, and he alone is the actor, independent of mind, senses of perception and organs of action.

(See I.36, 47; II.18, 20; III.36 and IV.25.)

III.51 tadvairagyat api dosabijaksaye kaivalyam

tadvairagyat

from non-attachment to them, indifferent towards them, desirelessness towards them

api

even

dosa

defect, bondage, imperfection

bija

seed

ksaye

on destruction

kaivalyam

pure, simple, unmingled, perfect in one’s self, perfect aloneness, eternal emancipation, absorption in the supreme soul

By destruction of the seeds of bondage and the renunciation of even these powers, comes eternal emancipation.

By renouncing the supernormal powers, the yogi reaches eternal emancipation. Indifference to all supernatural experiences destroys the seed of sorrows and leads the yogi to live in his own self. If he does not spurn them he will be caught in the web of subtle afflictions, and may find it very difficult to come out of them.

In II.16, Patañjali spoke of afflictions and pains which may affect the sadhaka at a later time through pride or want of understanding. Now that the sadhaka has developed intellectual sensitivity, he is ready to hear that afflictions will instantly engulf one (see IV.28) who succumbs to the temptation of the siddhis. If he fails to see their hidden dangers, he ends up in sorrow. If he cultivates non-attachment to, and detachment from them, the seeds of sorrow, weakness or bondage that spring from siddha vidya are destroyed. From renunciation springs eternal emancipation, unalloyed purity. This is kaivalya. The self, now, has achieved absolute independence and abides in its own nature.

(See I.3; II.25; IV.27, 30.)

III.52 sthanyupanimantrane sangasmayakaranam punaranista prasangat

sthani

a place or position, rank, dignity, presiding deities

upanimantrane

on invitation, on being invited

sanga

coming together, union, contact, association

smaya

wonder, surprise, smile

akaranam

non-performance

punah

again

anista

undesirable, unfavourable

prasangat

connection, event

When approached by celestial beings, there should be neither attachment nor surprise, for undesirable connections can occur again.

Celestial beings try to seduce the yogi from the grace of yoga. The yogi must maintain his hard-won freedom, and must not fall victim to temptations that can pull him down from the height of spirituality.

Like sirens, celestial beings try to lure the successful yogi to his doom. If he submits to their blandishments, he is again caught in sensory pleasures and afflictions, and falls from the grace of yoga.

There are four types of yogis. They are known as prathama kalpika, madhubhumika, prajñajyoti and atikrantabhavaniya. Prathama kalpika yogis have worked hard in their yogic practices, and the power of progress has just begun to dawn. Madhubhumika yogis have learned to differentiate between citta and the seer and try to gain further mastery. (They are also called rtambhara prajñas.) The prajñajyotis have succeeded in subjugating the elements of nature, the qualities of the senses of perception, mind and desires and have realized the seer, while the atikrantabhavaniyas have attained the highest knowledge of the seer and have the power of paravairagya (highest dispassion).

Patañjali warns all classes of yogis not to let themselves be enticed into angelic ‘traps’, but to distance themselves from these divine temptations so that their hearts have no room to harbour undesirable feelings and urges.

(See I.16, 21, 48; II.27.)

III.53 ksana tatkramayoh samyamat vivekajam jñanam

ksana

an instant, a moment, an infinitesimal unit in time

tat

that, its

kramayoh

order, sequence, succession

samyamat

by constraint

vivekajam

exalted intelligence, total awareness

jñanam

knowledge, sacred knowledge, cognizance

By samyama on moment and on the continuous flow of moments, the yogi gains exalted knowledge, free from the limitations of time and space.

Panatjali now shows an altogether different method of reaching samadhi: by samyama on the continuous flow of moments which move in a succession known as time, the yogi gets direct understanding of time and relativity. From this, he recognizes that a moment in time is timeless, and that this timelessness is real and eternal, while its movement is confined to the past and the future. Movement is timebound, transient and ever-changing. The moment is everlasting, changeless, sacred: it is, in fact, the secret of samadhi. The moment is unconditioned reality, while the sequence of moments is conditioned reality; it is relative to the absolute and illusory. This realization is termed exalted intelligence.

In moment, neither psychological nor chronological time is felt. Moment comes between rising impressions and their restraints and vice-versa: it is a quiet intervening state, auspicious and pure, and is to be stabilized, prolonged and expanded so that consciousness becomes absolute.

This is vivekaja jñana, the gateway to kaivalya. The yogi has learned the orderly sequence of practice and of time, and now cannot be trapped by the temptations of celestial beings. (But, should this happen, he is reminded to pursue his sadhana, and to keep Self-Realization as his goal.)

As the atom is the minutest particle of matter, the moment is the minutest particle of time. The moment is singularly alone. Moments succeed one another in sequence, and these sequences put together constitute time. Thus the spokes of moments move into the wheel of time. The movement of mind in a continuum is psychological time. The movement of moments in present, past and future is chronological time.

The yogi keeps aware of the moment and thus conquers psychological and chronological time. He remains attentive to the moment, and does not allow his attention to slip into the movement of moments. He remains undisturbed, and with the loss of the time factor, his consciousness, too, loses its significance. Then, he catches sight of the soul. This is vivekaja jñana, exalted intelligence, the secret and sacred knowledge. (Read and re-read II.9–15).

This sounds extremely complicated, and certainly its absolute realization is unbelievably difficult, like trying to thread a needle when the thread is thicker than the needle’s eye. Yet there is a seed lesson here from which everyone can learn, and improve the quality of their lives.

Poets and wise men since the beginning of the written word have enjoined us in all cultures to live in the present moment because it is all we really have. Have you ever wondered, while watching nature films on television in which herds of beautiful gazelles are constantly surrounded by marauding predators, why their life is not a living hell of fear and insecurity? How can they live their family lives of courtship, procreation, joy in their own physical perfection, knowing that the inevitable end will be in the lion’s maw? You cannot say it is dull fatalism, or lack of imagination. If they lacked imagination why would they run away so fast? The answer must be that they have the capacity to live in the present moment as it is and not as it might be. Those who live in reality, which can only be the present, will assuredly die, but will have lived before they die. Many people die without having lived. This is true cellularly as well as psychologically. By perfect positioning in Asana, we flood our cells with life, which is nothing but present awareness. The cells too will die – but first they will have lived.

One of the reasons why, as a teacher of Asana, I am so intense, and was in the past even harsh, is that I want to give the students one and a half hours of present life in a lesson. As I shout at them to straighten their legs in SirsAsana (headstand), they cannot be wondering what is for dinner or whether they will be promoted or demoted at work. For those who habitually flee the present, one hour’s experience of ‘now’ can be daunting, even exhausting, and I wonder if the fatigue felt by some students after lessons is due more to that than to the work of performing Asanas. Our perpetual mental absences are like tranquillizing drugs, and the habit dies hard. For the keen student, the effect of Asana is exhilarating.

The ‘elsewhere’ or ‘otherwise’ mentality to which we are bound by psychological time, causes us to emasculate our present reality with our illusory unreality. It is as if we were staying in a town with only one hotel, not a very nice one, and all night we are miserable because we are thinking of the lovely hotel we stayed in the night before. But as the town has only one hotel, we are destroying our night’s sleep for the sake of fantasy. Now the atom of the moment, the minutest particle of time, is like the town with only one hotel. If we can live with that, such as it is, good, bad or indifferent, without a forwards, backwards or sideways glance, then we are free. If I seem to have over-simplified the subject, it is in an effort to demystify a topic which has become a plaything for intellectuals.

(See IV.12 and 13.)

III.54 jati laksana desaih anyata anavacchedat tulyayoh tatah pratipattih

jati

class, descent, rank, race, lineage

laksana

distinctive mark, a sign, quality

desaih

place, position in space

anyata

otherwise, in a different manner

anavacchedat

not bounded, not separated, undefined

tulyayoh

of the same kind or class, similar, equal

tatah

thereby, from it

pratipattih

understanding, knowledge

By this knowledge the yogi is able to distinguish unerringly the differences in similar objects which cannot be distinguished by rank, qualitative signs or position in space.

With this exalted intelligence the yogi is capable of distinguishing, faultlessly and instantaneously, the minutest differences between two similar kinds of things or objects, irrespective of rank, creed, quality, place or space.

A yogi who has attained spiritual realization has clarity and sensitivity even in the subtlest of things. He sees all things distinctly and expresses himself faultlessly.

This quality of intelligence cannot be possessed even by evolved souls unless they are anchored in the sacred divine spiritual knowledge, vivekaja jñanam.

III.55 tarakam sarvavisayam sarvathavisayam akramam ca iti vivekajam jaanam

tarakam

shining, radiant, clear, clean, excellent

sarva

all

visayam

objects, pursuits, affairs, aims

sarvatha

in all ways, by all means, wholly, completely, at all times

visayam

objects, pursuits, affairs, aims

akramam

without succession, without method or order, without sequence

ca

and

iti

this

vivekajam jñanam

exalted knowledge, sacred spiritual knowledge

The essential characteristic of the yogi’s exalted knowledge is that he grasps instantly, clearly and wholly, the aims of all objects without going into the sequence of time or change.

Exalted in understanding, clear in action, he dominates and transcends nature and reaches, through yogic practices, the light of the soul.

(See I.36; II.52; III.34 and 36.)

III.56 sattva purusayoh suddhi samye kaivalyam iti

sattva

pure illuminative consciousness

purusayoh

soul

suddhi

of purity

samye

becoming equal

kaivalyam

perfect aloneness, unmingled freedom, pure, simple, perfect in one’s self

iti

this

When the purity of intelligence equals the purity of the soul, the yogi has reached kaivalya, perfection in yoga.

When the vestures of the soul are equal in purity to that of the soul, there is harmony between them. There comes freedom, kaivalya, of the seer, uncontaminated by the qualities of nature.

By yogic discipline, the veil of ignorance is lifted from the intelligence. This is the real and true light: vivekaja jñanam, illuminative consciousness. It becomes equal to that of the light of the soul, purusa. The distinction between intelligence and consciousness comes to an end. Both dissolve in the beacon light of the soul. They are isolated from contact with nature’s objects. The seeds of affliction are burnt up. The vestures either become isolated and functionless or are lifted to the level of their wearer. This is freedom. Now the Soul shines in its pristine form, in its pure effulgence: it reigns supreme. This is kaivalya, the indivisible state of existence.

(See II.23; III.49 and IV.26.)

Here ends the exposition on vibhuti, the third pada of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras.

Part four

Kaivalya pada

Kaivalya pada is the fourth and final chapter of Patañjali’s exposition of yoga.

In his individual way, Patañjali set out the three cornerstones of Indian philosophy: the path of devotion, bhakti marga, in samadhi pada; the path of action, karma marga, in sadhana pada; the path of knowledge, jñana marga, in vibhuti pada. In kaivalya pada, he describes the path of renunciation, vairagya marga or virakti marga, the path of detachment from worldly objects and of freedom from worldly desires. In so doing, he brings out the whole essence of the Indian outlook on life.

This pada is complex and difficult to comprehend at first glance, as it appears to be more theoretical than practical, but hidden practical aspects are present in each sutra.

Here, Patañjali explains how consciousness can become pure, intelligent and ripe, and free itself from the clutches of nature, enabling the yogi to reach the goal of Absolute Freedom, auspicious bliss and beatitude. These, according to Patañjali, are the qualities of a perfect yogi. He then deals with the course of action which the exalted yogi should follow after enlightenment.

Patañjali says that when the intelligence is cultivated to the point of ripeness, ego, ahamkara, loses its potency naturally and consciousness reaches a state of divine purity. The rivers of intelligence and consciousness lose their identities and merge in the river of the soul. This is the crowning glory of the yoga sadhana, the attainment of kaivalya or Brahma jñana.

Let us briefly summarize our journey so far. By now, the reader is familiar with the fact that samadhi pada is an internal quest in which the art and meaning of yoga are described, the functions of mind, intelligence and consciousness explained, and methods of developing and sustaining a permanently balanced, stable consciousness shown.

Sadhana pada deals with the body, senses and mind, and connects them to the intelligence and consciousness. The external sheaths – body, senses and mind – are perceptible and distinguishable; intelligence and consciousness are not easily perceptible. Sadhana pada thus describes the external quest, beginning with the distinguishable sheaths and proceeding to the penetration of the core of being through intelligence and consciousness.

Samadhi pada begins with the fluctuations of consciousness and ends with a state in which the mind does not function. Sadhana pada begins with the afflictions of the body and their emotional implications and sets out means to overcome them through the various disciplines of yoga.

The first two padas thus emphasize the art, theory and practice of yoga.

Vibhuti pada describes the properties of yoga. Here, having guided the sadhaka through the external quest, Patañjali takes him through the internal quest and then deeper into integration, samyama.

Samyama is the art of contemplating wholly, so that the yogi becomes one with the object of contemplation. Patañjali calls this communion of subject and object the innermost quest. In it, he says, sparks of superconsciousness and extraordinary powers accrue, which might affect the yogi’s divinity and hinder his progress towards self-awareness and universal consciousness. He advises yogis who have acquired such powers to move away from them by screening out their ‘I’ centre from them, and to further filter and purify consciousness for attainment of exalted intelligence, vivekaja jñanam. Then the seer reigns supreme.

These three padas of the Yoga Sutras speak of the growth of man from an unfulfilled state of mind, to the glory of illumined intelligence and consciousness.

In kaivalya pada, without forgetting the internal and external sheaths, Patañjali draws the yogi towards the subtlest, the soul. Kaivalya pada can therefore be called the quest of the soul, antaratma sadhana. Here Patañjali speaks of the ways in which such exalted yogis should live and serve humanity with their supreme wisdom, maintaining the radiance of their souls with untainted intelligence and unalloyed peace.

Interestingly, Patañjali begins this chapter with the rebirth of such adepts. Having attained refined states of intelligence through yoga, they may have become proud or arrogant, or indifferent or negligent in their practices, and fallen from the grace of yoga. Patañjali uses the phrase ‘jatyantara parinama’ for such fallen yogis (jatyantara = change of birth, birth into another class, another state of life; parinama = transformation).

Adepts are born according to the standard of their previous sadhana. The potentialities of nature flow in them abundantly so that they may continue their sadhana with renewed vigour and intensity (see I.21).

Patañjali explains four types of actions (karma). He first describes three actions common to all, white, grey and black. Then he speaks of the fourth type, which has no reaction and is meant for the attainment of untainted purity. He cautions that these must be maintained, sustained and upheld throughout one’s sadhana. Then consciousness will realize that it has no light of its own, that it exists only by the borrowed light of the soul (atman). At this stage, consciousness gravitates towards and merges in its Lord, the soul (atman).

The yogi is now free from the fourfold aims of life: religious duty (dharma), purpose of life and duty of earning a livelihood (artha), joy of life (kama) and liberation (moksa). He is free from the gravitational pull of the gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas. He is a gutatutan, free from the gunas. This is the summit of yoga.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krsna beautifully describes to Arjuna the characteristics of a perfect yogi (II.55–59, 61, 64–72).

He who is free from desire in thought, word, deed and content in his soul, is clean and clear in his intelligence.

He who remains unperturbed amidst sorrows; who does not long for pleasures and lives free from passion, fear and anger, has steadfast wisdom.

He who has no attachment on any side and remains indifferent to good or evil, is firmly established in his intelligence.

He who draws away his senses effortlessly from their pastures as a tortoise draws in its limbs, his wisdom is firmly set.

He who abstains from feeding the desires of the senses and mind and allows the tastes of desires to fade out on their own, is one with the soul.

He whose senses and mind are under control, he who is firmly set in his wisdom remains firm in yoga intent on Me.

He who has disciplined his citta remains unresponsive to likes and dislikes, and is filled with purity and tranquillity.

He, in that tranquil state, extinguishes all miseries and is established in his exalted intelligence.

He who is not able to restrain fluctuations of his consciousness, cannot concentrate, and without concentration cannot attain salvation. With efforts of practice and renunciation, he has to gain control over the mind.

If one’s citta is mingled with the senses that rove among objects, one loses the power of discriminative discernment and will be carried away from the path of evolution like the wind carrying away a ship in waters.

Therefore, Lord Krsna says, he whose senses are completely restrained from their objects, his intelligence is under control.

What is night for all beings is day for a disciplined yogi, as he is one with the vision of the soul (apavarga); when all beings are active with worldly pleasures (bhoga), the yogi considers this as night by keeping himself aloof from worldly thoughts.

Just as waters flow into the ocean, yet the level of the ocean neither changes nor becomes ruffled, similarly he who is steadfast in intelligence, pleasures do not haunt him, he attains liberation.

He who renounces all desires and keeps away from attachment, attains freedom and beatitude (kaivalya).

He who is free from delusion and keeps himself in contact with the divine consciousness, even at the moment of death, reaches kaivalya and the Supreme Lord.

IV.1 janma ausadhi mantra tapah samadhijah siddhayah

janma

birth

ausadhi

medicinal plant, herb, drug, incense, elixir

mantra

incantation, charm, spell

tapah

heat, burning, shining, an ascetic devotional practice, burning desire to reach perfection, that which burns all impurities

samadhi

profound meditation, total absorption

jah

born

siddhayah

perfections, accomplishments, fulfilments, attainments

Accomplishments may be attained through birth, the use of herbs, incantations, self-discipline or samadhi.

There are five types of accomplished yogis (siddhayah):

by birth with aspiration to become perfect (janma)

by spiritual experience gained through herbs, drugs or elixir (ausadha)

by incantation of the name of one’s desired deity (mantra)

by ascetic devotional practice (tapas)

by profound meditation (samadhi)

There is an important distinction between these means of spiritual accomplishment. Followers of the first three may fall from the grace of yoga through pride or negligence. The others, whose spiritual gains are through tapas and samadhi, do not. They become masters, standing alone as divine, liberated souls, shining examples to mankind.

Nandi, Ramakrsna Paramahamsa, Sai Baba of sirni and Ramana Maharsi were accomplished yogis by birth.

Sage Matnavya and King Yayati developed supernatural powers through an elixir of life. Today many drug users employ mescalin, LSD, hashish, heroin, etc. to experience the so-called spiritual visions investigated by Aldous Huxley and others. Artists and poets in the past have also relied on drugs to bring about supernormal states to enhance their art.

Matnavya was a sage and a yogi. In his childhood days his only game was to kill flies. When he grew up, he reached samadhi by tapas. Local thieves were stealthily using his asrama as a resting place after pillaging and bringing back their booty. People went to the king and told him of their agony and fear for their lives. The king, at once, ordered his attendants to find the thieves and put them to the gallows. The party traced the thieves to the yogi’s asrama and brought all of them, including the sage, and hanged them. All died except the sage. Seeing this wonder, the king came and apologized and released him from the gallows. But the sage kicked and broke the gallows and died of his own will.

Attendants of Yama (Lord of Death) carried the sage to hell. He was shocked to find himself there and asked the God of death the reason for bringing him to hell. The Lord replied that, having killed flies in his childhood, he had come to hell. The sage was enraged and thundered that the crimes of childhood days belong to the parents, and not to the children. The sage said to the Lord: ‘You do not know dharma (science of duty), hence I curse you to be born on earth as the son of a sudra for having failed in your duty as an impartial judge of man’s sins’, and then the sage returned to his old hermitage as young as ever. Due to this curse, the Lord of Death took birth as Vidura and acted as adviser to King Dhrtarastra of Mahabbarata fame.

King Yayati was the son of Nahusa. He had two wives. One was Devayani (daughter of sukracarya, preceptor of the demons and inventor of the elixir of life – sanjivani), and the other was Sarmistha. As the king’s worldly power grew, his lust for sensual joy increased, and he committed adultery. Devayani, incensed by her husband’s infidelity, returned to her father and complained of her husband. Sukracarya cursed the king with premature old age. Then her affection for Yayati sprang out and she pleaded with her father that the curse was too strong. Listening to his daughter’s pleas, he consented to transfer the curse to any one of the king’s sons if they would accept it. None of his sons came forward except his youngest son, Puru. Puru accepted his father’s old age and the father kept his youth. Later in life, Yayati realized that lust (kama) cannot be quenched at all. He returned his youth to his son along with his kingdom. He took back his old age and returned to the forest to devote the rest of his life to meditation.

Many sadhakas initiated through mantras did penance and became spiritual masters, poets and scholars. The dacoit Ratnakar became the author of the famous epic Ramayana; Dhruva, the son of King Uttanapada, reached God-hood; while young Prahlada, the son of the demon King Hiratyakasipu, made God come out of a pillar.

IV.2 jatyantara parinamah prakrtyapurat

jatyantara

in another class, change of birth, another state of life

parinamah

change, transformation

prakrti

nature, creative cause, nature’s energy

apurat

becoming full, being full, abundant flow

The abundant flow of nature’s energy brings about a transformation in one’s birth, aiding the process of evolution.

Just as water can be transformed into vapour or ice, and gold into ornaments, so afflictions and fluctuations can be brought under control and transformed by vanquishing avidya.

In IV.I, Patañjali explained that nature’s energy flows in such abundance in certain adepts that their consciousness is transformed, enabling them to live in a pure dynamic state in this present life. (If a saddhaka fails to reach perfection during this life, nature may abundantly penetrate and perfect his sadhana in the next, so that he may then experience freedom.)

Due to the power of his practices, nature’s energy flows in such a sadhaka with such force as to transform him into an immortal. This accords with the theory of evolution. It is interesting to note also that nature itself is the power-house for spiritual evolution.

Buddha, Adi sankara, Sri Ramanujacarya, Jñanesvar, Tukaram and Nandanar attained kaivalya during their lives here on earth without yogic sadhana because of the fruits of yogic practices in their previous lives (jatyantara parinama).

Similarly, acaryatis Maitreyi, Gargi, Arundhati, Lilavati, Sulabha, sarada Devi, yogini Lalla of Kashmir and yogini Motibai of Jaipur, all attained liberation through jatyantara parinama. See Great Women of India, Advaita Asrama, Almora, Himalayas; also see Yoga, A Gem for Women, by Geeta S. Iyengar, Allied Publishers, Delhi.)

IV. 3 nimittam aprayojakam prakrtinam varatabhedah tu tatah ksetrikavat

nimittam

incidental, instrumental, efficient cause, a pretext

aprayojakam

not useful, of no use, those which do not move into action

prakrtinam

of natural tendencies or potentialities

varatam

covers, veils, obstacles

bhedah

split, division, separation

tu

but, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless

tatah

from that

ksetrikavat

like a farmer, like a peasant, like a husbandman

Nature’s efficient cause does not impel its potentialities into action, but helps to remove the obstacles to evolution, just as a farmer builds banks to irrigate his fields.

Culture of the sprouted consciousness is of paramount importance in yoga. As a farmer builds dykes between fields to regulate the flow of water, evolved yogis channel the abundant flow of nature’s energy to free themselves from the bondage of their actions and develop spiritual insight. Even if sadhana fails to bring about complete transformation in the life of a sadhaka, it certainly serves to remove obstacles in the path of his evolution.

Past good actions (karmasaya) indirectly become instrumental in accelerating the flow of natural tendencies for the good of the consciousness. A farmer heaps up banks of earth to collect water and soak part of a field. When one area is soaked, he opens the bank to enable the water to flow into the adjoining area, continuing until the entire field is thoroughly irrigated. Then he sows the best seeds to get the best of harvests, and enjoys the fruits. Through yogic discipline, the yogi removes all obstacles to his evolution, and enjoys emancipation.

Thus disciplined, the yogi’s enhanced energy spontaneously removes all fluctuations and afflictions which hinder his spiritual growth, enabling him to gain insight into his very being, his soul.

This sutra is a beauty in itself. Nature’s energy now flows abundantly in the sadhaka. This energy is built up and concentrated through practice of Asana, pranayama and bandha, which can be thought of as ‘dykes’ in the system to regulate and channel energy, so that mind and intelligence may diffuse evenly throughout one’s being.

Judicious use of energy builds courage, strength, wisdom and freedom. This is cultivation of talent, which may transform itself to the level of genius.

(See I.2, 18, 29–39; II.2, 12, 13, 18; II.29–III.15.)

IV.4 nirmatacittani asmitamatrat

nirmana

measuring, forming, making, fabricating, creating, creation

cittani

spheres of consciousness, the stuff of the mind

asmita

sense of individuality

matrat

from that alone

Constructed or created mind springs from the sense of individuality (asmita).

From a sense of self-awareness, numerous activities become associated in one’s consciousness, thereby giving rise to mental states called moods, which form themselves into nirmita, or cultivated, citta. They taint, distort and disturb the intelligence, creating various afflictions and fluctuations. If this distorted consciousness is re-channelled in the right direction, it develops refinement and sensitivity. Then nirmita citta changes into nirmata, or sasmita, citta, or a sense of sattvic individuality, and nature makes the intelligence wise, which in turn keeps the consciousness pure.

This sutra explains the quality of constructive and creative mind through asmita. The seat of the mind-matter is the brain. It creates fluctuations, bias and prejudices which cause pain and distress, and need to be restrained.

The mind at its source is single and pure. It is known as the core of the being (atman) or the seat of the spiritual heart. When it sprouts into a seedling, it becomes the self-conscious centre (antahkarana), and forms sasmita or a sense of sattvic individuality. This develops into consciousness (citta), which branches out into ego (ahamkara), intelligence (buddhi) and mind (manas). These manifest themselves as multiple thought-waves, which, if allowed free play, give rise to afflictions and fluctuations (vyutthana citta).

By regular practice, the fire of yoga develops the sadhaka’s ability to discriminate between the original mind and its off-shoots, single mind and multifaceted, complex mind. He does this by careful observation of his behaviour, channelling his energies to retrace the source of these thought-waves (citta vrttis) and eradicate them at this very source. This is Santa citta or samahita citta, which takes the sadbaka to the verge of the single state of consciousness, and converts the sprouted or created consciousness into a cultured consciousness, nirmata citta. This, in turn, traces the core of his individual existence. This becomes meditation, dhyana, at which point the distortions of the multiple mind disappear. The conscious awareness of head and heart unite, and the consciousness becomes mature and pure (divya citta). This pure citta is the root consciousness, mula citta.

For example, one can compare the single state of consciousness to the trunk of a tree and the multiple mind to the branches of the tree. Though the branches shoot out from the main trunk, they remain in contact with it. Similarly, the sadhaka has to draw back the branches of consciousness, i.e., the ‘I’ consciousness, from the head towards its base, so as to lose its identity.

(See 1.2; II.6 and III.12–13.)

IV. 5 pravrtti bhede prayojakam cittam ckam anekesam

pravrtti | moving forward, proceeding, progressing
bhede | difference
prayojakam | effect, usefulness, benefit
cittam | consciousness
ekam | one
anekesam | numberless, numerous

Consciousness is one, but it branches into many different types of activities and innumerable thought-waves.

Consciousness, though single, directs multiple thoughts, sometimes creating disparities between words and deeds. It is indirectly responsible for numerous activities, and becomes the source of desires and their fulfilment. If it stops directing thoughts, the need to culture the consciousness towards transformation (nirmana citta) does not arise.

Patañjali wants us to channel the energies of the multiple mind in the right direction, so that no disparities or distortions arise between words, thoughts and deeds.

It has already been said that from the sense of ‘I’ consciousness in the sphere of activity, multiple thoughts arise. Owing to lack of understanding, avidya, their fluctuations create doubts, confusion, desires and greed, bringing afflictions that disturb the mind. These are ‘weeds’ of the mind (vyutthana or nirmita citta). By using the discriminative faculty (nirodha citta) gained through yoga, and analysing the fluctuating changes, the weeds are uprooted and a state of silence (prasanta citta), is created: an intermediate state between the original, universal mind and the individual mind. In that state of silence, comes a refining and purifying spark from within (divya citta). When this occurs, nature becomes a real friend to consciousness, culturing and transforming it, with its abundant energies, and purifying the intelligence of the heart. Intelligence and consciousness then realize that they are one, not separate and different, and all sorrows and joys come to an end.

The intelligence of the heart is nothing but the seer, in whom both intelligence and consciousness rest and remain forever, with purity and divinity.

(See 1.2, 17; II.6; III.13, 14; IV.1, 3.)

IV. 6 tatra dhyanajam anasayam

tatra | of them, of these
dhyanajam | born of meditation
anasayam | free from impressions or influences

Of these activities of consciousness of perfected beings, only those which proceed from meditation are free from latent impressions and influences.

Having explained the creation by the single mind of multiple thoughts which disturb the poise of the original mind, Patañjali says here that this ‘sprouted’ mind should be cultured, stilled and silenced through profound meditation. This puts an end to the influence of impressions, and frees the consciousness from entanglements with objects seen, heard or known.

Meditation not only frees consciousness from past impressions but also removes the obstacles to the progressive evolution of the mind. Impressions of attachment and affliction continue to torment others.

These obstacles, lust, anger, greed, infatuation, pride and jealousy, are the spokes of the emotional wheel. Meditation helps to subdue them so that the emotional centre (the consciousness of the heart) can expand in a new dimension of spiritual growth. Then consciousness will have neither merits nor demerits, virtue nor vice, fluctuations nor afflictions. It becomes ‘cultured’ (samahita citta), and is conducive to experiencing kaivalya.

(See 1.23, 29, 32; 11.11, 12; 111.51.)

IV.7 karma asukla akrsnam yoginah trividham itaresam

karma | action
asukla | non-white
akrsnam | non-black
yoginah | of a yogi
trividham | threefold (black, white and mixed, or grey)
itaresam | for others

A yogi’s actions are neither white nor black. The actions of others are of three kinds, white, black or grey.

This sutra speaks of three types of actions and their effects on an average individual, but there are in fact four. The fourth is free, uncoloured and pure. The yogi follows this kind of action to be free from its fruits.

White, black and mixed or grey actions produce fruits and chain reactions. Black actions produce tamasic, grey actions rajasic, and white sattvic effects. White actions result in virtue, black in vice. Grey actions result in a mixture of effects, and of positive and negative emotions.

The unmixed actions of the yogi are beyond sattva, rajas and tamas. They produce no positive or negative reactions in consciousness and hence are free from duality. This fourth type of action is propitious and auspicious. This is the real ‘skill in action’ of the yogi (see Bhagavad Gita, II.50).

An average person is full of ambition. He desires rewards for his deeds, but forgets that they carry the seeds of pain. If his ambition is transformed into spiritual aspiration, he loses interest in rewards and comes to understand sadhana for the sake of sadhana, or action for the sake of action. He becomes refined; his mind and consciousness become clear and his actions clean. He collects no impressions. He takes future births only to cleanse himself of past accumulated impressions. He anchors his mind and consciousness unreservedly to the will of the divine. All his actions are free from the seeds of reactions.

There is a tendency to associate the renunciate of Patañjali’s eightfold path with the recluse who conquers the temptations of the flesh simply by rejecting the civilized world and dwelling in places where no temptations exist. Of all discussions on how to belong to the world, act in it and yet remain unsullied, pride of place is often given to the debate between Lord Krsna and Arjuna on the eve of battle. There, Krsna makes it plain that action cannot be avoided; because inaction is also action; and that selfish actions, and attachment to their fruits, lead to ensnarement.

With respect to this triumph of world literature and philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita, we must acknowledge that in this sutra, Patañjali, in his usual terse style, has said exactly the same thing. Not even the superbly expressive style of the Gita can eclipse Patañjali’s genius in going straight to the heart of the matter.

How does a free man act, and yet remain free? This is the main thrust of the kaivalya pada. Here Patañjali clearly states that free action, beyond causality, is his who acts without motive or desire – as if a kite were released in the sky, without a string to bring it back to earth.

(See 11.12–15 and IV.4.)

tatah | thence
tad | those impressions, their tendencies, potentialities
vipaka | ripening, fruition
anugunanam | correspondingly, accordingly
eva | only
abhivyaktih | manifestation
vasananam | of desires, of tendencies

These three types of actions leave impressions which become manifest when conditions are favourable and ripe.

Of the four kinds of action, the first three leave behind potential residues which are accumulated as impressions in the memory. Memories create desires, and the results of desires in turn become memories. They move together and form latent impressions, which, according to their maturity, either manifest immediately or remain dormant, to appear unexpectedly later in this life or in future lives.

Desire is the motivating force which stimulates the body and mind and strives for fulfilment. Desires and their fulfilment bind consciousness to the threefold actions. Desire and memory compel the mind to act for their gratification, determining one’s future class of birth, span of life, and the kinds of experiences to be undergone. If the impressions are good, they create situations favourable to spiritual life. Unfavourable impressions bind one to lust, anger, greed, infatuation, pride and envy, creating disturbances in the consciousness. But even then, if one turns one’s consciousness towards the seer by sincerely and reverentially following the eightfold path of yogic discipline, one’s actions will no longer be of the threefold type, but of the fourth, which do not give rise to desire for fruits or rewards. This is the literal meaning of Yogas karmasu kausalam, ‘skill of yogic action’.

(See 1.12, 43; 11.12, 13, 28; III.18, 23 and 38.)

IV. 9 jati desa kala vyavahitanam api anantaryam smrti samskarayoh ekarupatvat

jati | class, lineage, descent, race, rank
desa | place, locality
kala | time, effect, point
vyavahitanam | placed in between, separated, impeded, laid aside, surpassed, done well
api | even
anantaryam | uninterrupted sequences, immediate succession
smrti | memory
samskarayoh | potential, impressions
ekarupatvat | one in form, same in appearance, of common identity

Life is a continuous process, even though it is demarcated by race, place and time. Due to the uninterrupted close relationship between memory and subliminal impressions, the fruits of actions remain intact from one life to the next, as if there were no separation between births.

According to Indian philosophy, the law of karma functions uninterruptedly throughout successive lifetimes, though each life is separated by rank, place and time. Desires and impressions are stored in the memory and connect the behavioural patterns of previous lives with present and future lives.

The theory of karma, or the law of cause and effect, is explained to inspire the sadhaka to pursue non-white and non-black karmas, which will free him from the desires and results which are simply the accumulated actions of his previous lives. Such desireless actions culture and refine the consciousness and enable it to explore the kingdom of the soul. This is another aspect of nirmana citta.

In the previous sutra, the common identity of latent habitual impressions and memories is pointed out. Memories and impressions are interrelated, interconnected, interwoven. They act as stimuli in the present life. Even if previous lives are divided by social condition, status, time and place, the oneness of memory and impression flashes consciously, subconsciously or unconsciously and moulds the pattern of the present life. For example, if a man’s life has taken shape after undergoing many lives in the form of other species, memory and impressions at once connect the past to the present life even though the interval between them may be a long one. We may therefore conclude that the seed of future lives is planted in the present life.‘As you sow, so shall you reap’: we are responsible in this life for moulding our future lives.

The theory of karma, far from being a fatalistic theory of ‘predestination’, as many people misunderstand it to be, serves to make us aware of our responsibility and our power to affect the future course of our lives. It acts as a guide, inspiring us to perform virtuous actions which will gradually lead us towards the skill of performing desireless actions.

IV.10 tasam anaditvam ca asisah nityatvat

tasam | those memories and impressions
anaditvam | without beginning, existing since eternity
ca | and
asiasan | desires
nityatvat | permanent, eternal

These impressions, memories and desires have existed eternally, as the desire to live is eternal.

Just as the universe is eternal, so are impressions and desires. They have existed from time immemorial. For one whose seeds of defects are eradicated, and whose desires have come to an end, the upheavals of the universe appear to have come to an end.

Nobody knows the timeless, primeval, absolute One, or when the world came into being. Both purusa and prakrti, spirit and nature, existed before man appeared. When creation took place, man was endowed with consciousness, intelligence, mind, senses of perception, organs of action and body. At the same time the characteristics or qualities (gunas) of nature, illumination (sattva), action (rajas) and inertia (tamas) entered man’s body. Set on the wheel of time with the spokes of the gunas of nature, man began to function in accordance with these three fundamental, intermingling qualities. Though born with a pure heart, he gradually became caught in the web of nature and fell prey to the polarities of pleasure and pain, good and evil, love and hatred, the permanent and transient. That is how desires (vasana) and imprints (samskara) rooted themselves in man’s life, and why this sutra says that desires have existed from time immemorial.

Caught in these opposites, man felt the need of a personal divinity, unaffected by afflictions, untouched by actions and reactions, and free from the experience of joy and sorrow. This led to a search for the highest ideal embodied in purusa, or God. Through this search came culture, and then civilization. Man learned to distinguish between good and evil, virtue and vice, and what is moral and immoral. That is how yoga was discovered.

Through yoga sadhana, the desires that have existed since the beginning of time are eradicated so that kaivalya can be experienced.

In II.12, Patañjali explained that the causes of actions are hidden accumulated impressions of our past deeds. In this chapter he speaks of pure actions, which collect and store no imprints.

The essential nature of citta is tranquillity, santa citta. When the sadhaka does not allow thought-waves to arise (vyutthana citta), naturally there is no need for their restraint, nirodha citta. As both are filtered by santa citta, the sadhaka dwells in this quiet state and does his duties. His actions are pure, and their outcome too will be pure (see IV.7).

Due to ignorance, joy and sorrow arise and intensify according to one’s surroundings. If allowed free rein, they disturb the serene state of consciousness and the gates of kaivalya may remain closed forever. But one can sever the links of desires by developing the mind through the grace of yoga. As long as one practices yoga, one is free from desire. Devoted, life-long practice of yoga stops the wheel of desires, so that one lives in the state of poise and peace.

(See 1.35; II.1, 9; 111.51.)

1V. 11 hetu phala asraya araya alambanaih sangrhitatvat esam abhave tad abhavah

hetu | cause, motive, impulse
phala | effect, fruit
asraya | support, shelter, refuge, anything closely connected
alambanaih | dependent upon, resting upon, assistance, help
sangrhitatvat | held together
esam | of these
abhave | in the absence of
tad | of them, of these
abhavah | disappearance

Impressions and desires are bound together by their dependence upon cause and effect. In the absence of the latter, the former too ceases to function.

Lack of understanding, avidya, creates afflictions, which in turn create desires. This causes the cycle of rebirths. The accumulated impressions of memory are without beginning, but have a definite end provided the individual becomes cultured and discerning. When the formation of desire is kept in abeyance, the cycle of rebirths comes to an end.

The sight of an object creates motivation, which acts as a springboard for desire. Desire sustains motive, and motive ignites action aimed at fulfilment of the desire. This nourishes further desires which then lodge permanently in the seat of the consciousness, binding the soul forever.

Through regular, reverential practice of yoga, and the use of discriminative intelligence, this web of object, motivation, desire and reward is made to wither away. Then the pairs of opposites – vice and virtue, pain and pleasure, aversion and attachment – gradually fade and then disappear.

This brings sensitivity and refinement to the consciousness, which now avoids desires and thoughts of reward, and directs its attention towards the exploration of the seer.

(See 1.4; II.3–9, 12–14, 18.)

IV. 12 atita anagatam svarupatah asti adhvabhedat dharmanam

atita | the past
anagataum | the futute
svarupatah | in its true form, essential form, real nature
asti | exists
adhvabhedat | condition being different
dharmanam | characteristics, inherent properties

The existence of the past and the future is as real as that of the present. As moments roll into movements which have yet to appear as the future, the quality of knowledge in one’s intellect and consciousness is affected.

The understanding of time releases one from bondage. Time is a system revealing the sequential relation that one event has to another and another and so on, as past, present, or future. Time is regarded as an indefinite continuous duration in which events succeed one another.

The past and future are as real as the present. The orderly rhythmic procession of moments (kusauna cakra) into movements is the wheel of time (kala cakra). Its existence is real and eternal.

The present may fade into the past, or manifest clearly at a future time. Due to the play of the guunDas of nature, conditions change, producing the illusion that time has changed.

Past and future are woven into the present, though they appear different due to the movement of moments.

Desire nourishes action aimed at its gratification. The intermission between desire, action and fulfilment involves time, which manifests as past, present and future. True understanding of motivation and the movement of moments releases a yogi from the knot of bondage.

Moment is changeless and eternal. Moments flow into movements eternally and are measurable as past, present and future. This measurable time is finite, when contrasted with eternity.

The negative effects of time are intellectual (lack of spiritual knowledge, avidya, and pride, asmita); emotional (attachment to pleasure, raga, and aversion to pain, dveusa); and instinctive (the desire to cling to life, abhinives;a). Time’s positive effect is the acquisition of knowledge. The experience of the past supports the present, and progress in the present builds a sound foundation for the future. One uses the past as a guide to develop discriminative power, alertness and awareness which smooth the path for Self-Realization. The yogi who studies in depth this unique rotation of time keeps aloof from the movement of moments; he rests in the present, at which crucial point desires are kept in abeyance. Thus he becomes clear of head, clean of heart, and free from time, which binds consciousness. When the conjunction between the movement of moments and consciousness terminates, freedom and beatitude, kaivalya, are experienced.

(See III.14, 16; IV.33.)

IV.13 te vyakta suksmah guunatmanah

te | they (past, present and future)
vyakta | manifest
sukusmah | subtle
gunatmanah | the nature of qualities

The three phases of time intermingle rhythmically and interweave with the qualities of nature. They change the composition of nature’s properties into gross and subtle.

Desires, actions and rewards are not only entwined with the cycle of time but are composed and hidden according to the rhythmic movement of sattva, rajas and tamas. They may manifest and be brought to the surface, or remain hidden and emerge later.

Bound to the wheel of time by the gunas, man started to form ideas fuelled by desires in the fire of consciousness. Then, through past actions and experiences, he began to mould his life in order to gain freedom from dualities. This involved time, which has no beginning or end, but is simply a succession of moments. Though each moment is eternal and real in its continuous flow, it changes into movement. To be free from the cycles of cause and effect, man has to mould his behaviour from moment to moment. The cause is subtle but the effect is felt. The effects of our actions of yesterday are the cause of today’s; and the experience of our actions today becomes the seed of our actions tomorrow. All actions revolve around time and the qualities of nature.

A yogi has learned to weaken ignorance and increase the light of knowledge. He has moved from ignorance to knowledge, and darkness to light, from death to immortality. He alone knows how to live freely, unaffected by the onslaughts of nature. This is kaivalya.

(See II.18–19.)

IV. 14 parinama ekatvat vastutattvam

parinama | change, alteration, modification, transformation, expansion
ekatvat | due to oneness, on account of unity
vastu | object, thing, nature
tattvam | essence, real, abiding substance, essential property

Unity in the mutation of time caused by the abiding qualities of nature, sattva, rajas and tamas, causes modifications in objects, but their unique essence, or reality, does not change.

As there is a harmonious mutation between sattva, rajas and tamas (prakas;a, kriya and sthiti), both in nature and in the individual self, so there are differences in the way we see objects. According to the predominating gunas in one’s intelligence, an object is perceived differently although its essence remains the same.

The yogi penetrates the harmonious combination of nature with its gunas, understands clearly their mutations, and keeps aloof from them. This study helps him to remain in the essence of his object of contemplation which is not bound by time or by the qualities of nature. This object is the unchangeable seer, or the soul. The seer is not bound by time, whereas mind is.

This sutra is a good guide for us. In our practice of Asana and pranayama, we are the subjects, the performers. The different Asanas and pranayamas are the objects which we try to perceive and conceive clearly, so as to understand their principles and essence. Due to our accumulated desires and impressions, our ways of thinking, seeing and feeling change. If we learn to observe carefully, and memorize the basic principles of every posture and every breathing practice, we will be able to grasp their true essence.

Truth is One, and we must experience it in its real essence, without distinctions. If it seems to vary, that is because our intelligence and perception vary, and this prevents us from seeing the essential truth. If intelligence and consciousness are filtered and refined, both subject and object retain and reflect their real essence.

When Patañjali says that dualities disappear when Asanas are performed perfectly (II.48), he is telling us that the essence of an object does not vary: subject and object merge into one, so distinctions between them do not arise. Similarly in pranayama, the veil that covers the intelligence is lifted, and subject and object reveal their true essence. This conclusion applies equally to the essence of all other objects.

(See II.18–19.)

IV. 15 vastusamye cittabhedat tayoh vibhaktah panthah

vastu | object
samye | being the same
citta | consciousness
bhedat | being different
tayoh | theirs, of these two
vibhaktah | different, divided, partitioned, separated, parted
panthah | paths, ways of being

Due to the variance in the quality of mind-content, each person may view the same object differently, according to his own way of thinking.

The object (nature or prakurti) is as real as the subject (purusa), but though the substance of nature or object remains the same, the perceptions of it vary according to the difference in the development of each person’s consciousness.

Here, consciousness is the perceiver and the object perceived becomes the object to be known. On account of the wheel of time, substance and qualities of nature, and consciousness as perceiver develop differently in each individual. Though different perceivers see an object in different ways, it remains the same. For example, the same man or woman is a pleasure to a beloved or a lover and a pain to a rival. He or she may be an object of indifference to an ascetic and of no interest to a renunciate. Thus, the object is the same, the perceiver sees in the light of the interplay of the various gunaus.

In Asana and pranayama, owing to differences in one’s constitution and frame of mind, techniques and sequences change, but not their essence. As soon as the consciousness is purified by removal of the impurity, Asana and pranayama disclose their essence. When an even balance is achieved, the essence of subject and object are revealed in their purest and truest forms.

When the yogi realizes that the perceiver in the form of consciousness is not the real perceiver but an instrument of its lord – the seer or puruusa – it begins to discard its fluctuations and also its outer form, ego, so as to blend into a single unvacillating mind. This allows the single mind to merge in the seer, and the seer to shine forth in the light of the soul. This is atma jñana, leading to Brahma jñana. (See I.41–43.)

IV.16 na ca ekacitta tantram ced vastu tat apramanakam tada kim syat

na | not
ca | and
eka citta | one consciousness
tantram | dependent
ced | it
vastu | object
tat | that
apramanakam | unobserved, unapproved, unrecognized
tada | then
kim | what
syat | would happen

An object exists independent of its cognizance by any one consciousness. What happens to it when that consciousness is not there to perceive it?

The essence of an object is not dependent upon one’s mind or consciousness. If the mind or consciousness does not recognize the object, it means that mind or consciousness does not see, or that the seer is not stimulated by, the object. But this does not mean that the object does not exist.

As prakrti is as real and eternal as purusa, so are object and subject. Due to unripe intelligence and differences in the development of consciousness, each individual perceives objects according to his own intellectual ‘wavelength’, though their essence does not change. When a yogi reaches perfection in his sadhana, intelligence and consciousness touch the supreme knowledge: he becomes a fulfilled yogi, and remains merely an uninvolved witness of objects.

Man is a trinity of body, mind and soul. I have already shown that according to Indian philosophy, mind is treated as the eleventh sense. The five organs of action, five senses of perception and the mind are considered to be the eleven senses. Body, senses, mind, intelligence and self are interdependent: they are part of the cosmic consciousness (mahat), and susceptible to mutation and change, unlike the soul, which is changeless. The mind ignites stimuli in the senses of perception, or vice versa, and the organs of action participate so that the mind can experience objects. These experiences are imprinted according to the development of the mind, and in turn create impressions on the consciousness.

If an object does not stimulate the mind, it remains unperceived by the mind or the mind fails to grasp it. When the mind is freed from the play of the gunas, it sees objects in their true reality, and remains free from impressions. Its contact with perceived objects is severed. Then mind and soul become one, and are one with the essence of all objects.

(See I.43; II.22; IV.22, 31, 32.)

IV. 17 taduparaga apeksitvat cittasya vastu jñata ajñatam

tad | thereby
uparaga | conditioning, colouring
apeksitvat | expectation, hope, desire, want, need
cittasya | by the consciousness, for the consciousness
vastu | object
jñata | known
ajñatam | unknown

An object remains known or unknown according to the conditioning or expectation of the consciousness.

Consciousness is not the seer, but an instrument of the seer. A conditioned mind can never perceive an object correctly. If the mind sees the object without expectation, it remains free.

An object is understood and known according to the expectation of the mind, or remains unrecognized owing to the absence of reflection. When the object attracts the mind, contact and reflection begin. This gives rise to knowledge. If the mind fails to come in contact with the object, it does not perceive it and the object remains unknown.

If consciousness is conditioned or coloured (see vrttis and klesas – I.6 and II.6), knowledge of the object also becomes coloured. When the consciousness reflects on the object without condition, taint or expectation, its real essence is known. Similarly, if the consciousness reflects on the essence of the seer without conditioning, bias, or prejudice, the mind becomes enlightened. It knows that it is not itself the seer, but only an instrument of the seer. The unenlightened mistake mind and consciousness for the seer.

(See I.2–4, 41; II.3, 12–14, 20.)

IV. 18 sada jñatas cittavrttayas tatprabhos purusasya aparinamitvat

sada | always
jñatas | known
citta vrttayas | fluctuations of the consciousness
tatprabhos | of its lord
purusasya | of the soul
aparinamitvat | an account of changelessness

Purusa is ever illuminative and changeless. Being constant and master of the mind, he always knows the moods and modes of consciousness.

The Lord of consciousness is the seer. He is changeless, constant, and never alters or falters.

In deep sleep, consciousness forgets itself. It is purusa, as a witness which reminds the mind of sleep after waking. This indicates that purusa is ever alert and aware (sada jñata). Purusa’s alertness will be known to the sadhaka only when consciousness is purified and freed from rising thoughts and their restraints. Then the sadhaka, the seeker, becomes the seer.

The seer knows his consciousness and its ramifications. He is the seed and root, and consciousness is the seedling. Its stem is the‘I’ consciousness (asmita), which branches forth as ego, intelligence and mind. The seer, being the seed and root of consciousness, observes the changes and transformations taking place in it.

(See II.17, 20, 22–24; IV.30.)

IV. 19 na tat svabhasam drsyatvat

na | not
tat | that
svabhasam | self-illuminative
drsyatvat | because of its knowability or perceptibility

Consciousness cannot illumine itself as it is a knowable object.

Consciousness can be seen as an object. It is knowable and perceptible. It is not self-illuminative like the seer.

Consciousness being the seedling of the seer, its growth and luminosity depend upon the seed, the light of the seer. Its own light is as that of the moon, which is reflected light from the sun. The seer represents the sun, and consciousness the moon. As a child feels strong and secure in the presence of its parents, consciousness, the child of the seer, draws its strength from the seer.

Consciousness, like the senses of perception, can normally see an object but not its own form. For an average person, the eyes pose as the seer when apprehending worldly objects. For an intellectual person, the eyes become the seen, and the mind the seer. For an enlightened person, mind and intelligence become objects for the consciousness. But for the wise seer, consciousness itself becomes the object perceived.

The seer can be subject and object at the same time; consciousness cannot. It may therefore be inferred that consciousness has no light of its own. When the borrowed light of consciousness is drawn back to its source, the seer, or soul, glows brilliantly.

(See II.19–20.)

IV. 20 ekasamaye ca ubhaya anavadharanam

ekasamaye | at the same time
ca | and
ubhaya | of both
anavadharanam | cannot comprehend, cannot be held with affirmation or assurance

Consciousness cannot comprehend both the seer and itself at the same time.

It cannot comprehend subject-object, observer-observed, or actor-witness at the same time, whereas the seer can.

Day and night cannot exist simultaneously. Similarly, restlessness and restfulness cannot co-exist in absolute juxtaposition. In between night and day there is dawn. In the same way, there is space between the flow of restlessness, cittavrtti or cittavahini, and restfulness, prasanta vrtti or prasanta vahini. In between these two rivers of restlessness and restfulness, and underneath them, flows the concealed invisible secret river, the river of the soul. This is dawn, or the sudden arrival of enlightenment.

For a yogi, restlessness is the night and restfulness is the day. In between, there is a third state which is neither day nor night but dawn. It is the diffusion of consciousness, in which the rivers of restlessness and restfulness unite in the seat of absolute consciousness.

When the water of a lake is unruffled, the reflection of the moon on its surface is very clear. Similarly, when the lake of consciousness is serene, consciousness disseminates itself. This is known as a glimpse, or a reflection, of the soul.

The seer, being constant and unchangeable, can perceive the fluctuations as well as the serenity of his consciousness. If consciousness itself were self-luminous, it too could be the knower and the knowable. As it has not the power to be both, a wise yogi disciplines it, so that he may be alive to the light of the soul.

It is said in the Bhagavad Gita (II.69)‘One who is self-controlled is awake when it appears night to all other beings, and what appears to him as night keeps others awake’. A yogic sadhaka thus realizes that when consciousness is active, the seer is asleep and when the seer is awake, it is night to the consciousness.

Similarly, in the HatDha Yoga Pradipika, the word ha is used to signify the seer as the‘sun’, which never fades; while tha represents consciousness as the‘moon’, which eternally waxes and wanes.

(See I.2, 33, 38, 47; III.10.)

IV.21 cittantaradrsye buddhibuddhes atiprasangas smrtisankaras ca

citta | consciousness
antaradrsye | being knowable by another
buddhibuddheh | cognition of cognitions
atiprasangah | impertinence, rudeness, abundance, too many, superfluity
smrti | memory
sankarah | confusion, commingling
ca | and

If consciousness were manifold in one’s being, each cognizing the other, the intelligence too would be manifold, so the projections of mind would be many, each having its own memory.

Plurality of consciousness would result in lack of understanding between one mind and another, leading to utter confusion and madness. Patañjali therefore concludes that consciousness is one and cannot be many.

As a tree has many branches, all connected to the trunk, the various wavelengths of thoughts are connected to a single consciousness. This consciousness remains pure and divine at its source in the spiritual heart. When it branches from the source towards the head, it is called created consciousness, nirmita citta, which, being fresh, is untrained and uncultured. The moment it comes into contact with objects, it becomes tainted, creating moods in the thought-waves. These moods are the five fluctuations (vrttis) and five afflictions (klesas) (see I.6 and II.3).

The early commentators on Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras borrowed terms for the various modes of consciousness from Buddhist philosophy. They are discerning knowledge (vijñana), perceptive knowledge of joys and sorrows (vedana), resolution (samDjña), likeness and semblance (rupa) and impression (samDskara). All these are monitored by nirmita citta.

These moods should not be mistaken for a plurality of minds. The mind remains the same, but moods create an illusion of several minds. If the minds were really many, then each would have its own memory and intelligence. This becomes preposterous. Just as a room fitted with mirrors puzzles the onlooker, the idea of many minds causes confusion and absurdity.

The practice of yoga disciplines and cultures the consciousness of the head, by which it perfects the art of analysis (savitarka), judges precisely (savicara), experiences unalloyed bliss (ananda), becomes auspicious (sasmita) and moves towards mature intelligence (consciousness of the heart) and unalloyed wisdom (rtambhara prajña).

The two facets of consciousness have been beautifully and poetically explained in the Munnakopanisad (section 3, canto 1 and 2). Two birds sit together on a fig tree. One hops restlessly from branch to branch, pecking at different fruits which are variously sour, bitter, salty, and sweet. Not finding the taste it wants, it becomes more and more agitated, flying to ever more far-flung branches. The other remains impassive, steady, silent and blissful. Gradually the taster of fruits draws nearer to his quiet companion and, wearying of his frantic search, also becomes calm, unconsciously losing the desire for fruit, and experiencing non-attachment, silence, rest and bliss.

The yogi can learn from this. The tree represents the body, the two birds are the seer and consciousness, fruits are sprouted or secondary consciousness, and the different tastes of fruits are the five senses of perception which form the fluctuations and afflictions in the wavelengths of the mind.

The steady bird is the eternal, pure, divine, omniscient seer. The other is the sprouted or secondary consciousness absorbed in desire and fulfilment, and exhibiting different moods and modes of thought. After experiencing a variety of pain and pleasure, the secondary consciousness changes its mood and modes, identifies its true nature, reconsiders and returns to rest on its source mind. This return of the consciousness from the seat of the head towards the seat of the spiritual heart is purity of consciousness, divya citta. This is yoga.

(See I.4–6, 17, 48; II.3–4)

IV.22 citeh apratisamkramayah tadakarapattau svabuddhisamvedanam

citeh | the seer
apratisamkramayah | changeless, non-moving
tad | its
akara | form
apattau | having accomplished, identified, assumed
sva | one’s own
buddhi | intelligence
samvedanam | knows, assumes, identifies

Consciousness distinguishes its own awareness and intelligence when it reflects and identifies its source – the changeless seer – and assumes his form.

Through the accomplishment of pure consciousness comes knowledge of the unchangeable seer who rests on his own intelligence and nowhere else.

When consciousness no longer fluctuates, then its pure nature surfaces to comprehend itself. As stated in the commentary on IV.21, consciousness has two facets, one pure, divine and immutable, the other changeable, transient and exhibitive. It has no light of its own but acts as a medium or agent between the seer and the objects seen. Due to ignorance, it does not realize that it is impersonating the seer. But the seer knows the movements of the consciousness.

When one facet of consciousness ceases to operate, it ends its contact with the external world and stops collecting impressions. The other facet is drawn to the seer, and the two unite. Intelligence and consciousness merge in their abode – the atman, and the soul comes face to face with itself.

A dirty mirror obscures reflection, a clean mirror reflects objects clearly. The illumined consciousness becomes purified and reflects objects exactly as they are. The reflector is called bimba-pratibimba vada, or the exposition of double reflection. There is no difference between the source object and the reflected image. The soul reflects the soul. It is the fulfilment of yoga. Citta is identified with the seer. This is svabuddhi samvedanam or intuitive understanding of the inner voice.

An everyday example of our consciousness taking on the absolute quality and form of the object we observe, is when we gaze into the dancing flames of a fire, or at the waves of the sea, or the wind in the tree-tops. We feel totally immersed in watching, without thought or impatience, as though we ourselves were the unending waves or the flickering flames, or the wind-swept trees.

IV.23 drasnr drsya uparaktam cittam sarvartham

drasnr | the knower, the seer
drsya | the knowable, the seen
uparaktam | coloured, reflected, tainted, afflicted
cittam | consciousness
sarvartham | all-pervading, cognizing, comprehending, apprehending

Consciousness, reflected by the seer as well as by the seen, appears to be all-comprehending.

Consciousness, being in conjunction both with the seer and the seen, appears to an average individual to be all-pervading, omniscient and real. When one is cultured and purified, one realizes that consciousness has no existence of its own but is dependent on the seer.

As the physical frame is the body of consciousness, so consciousness is the body of the seer. Consciousness is the bridge between nature and soul, and its conjunction is either illumined by the seer or tainted by the seen. The wise yogi frees consciousness from the qualities of nature; he keeps it clean so that it is reflected without distortion both by the seer and the seen.

When the waves of the sea subside, they lose their identities and become the sea. Similarly, when the waves of the seer – the senses of perception, mind, intelligence and consciousness – subside, they lose their identities and merge in the ocean of the seer, for the seer to blaze forth independently. This is the sight of the soul.

For a clearer understanding of consciousness, we should read sutras IV.22–25 as a group.

In IV.22, Patañjali explains that consciousness is no longer a subject but an object. It is not a knower but the known. As it is trained by sadhana towards maturity (paripakva citta), it gains purity (suddha citta) through pure intelligence (suddha buddhi).

Until now, consciousness was under the impression that it was the reflector (bimba) and all other images were its reflected reflections (pratibimba). This sutra explains that consciousness in its immature state takes itself to be all-powerful and all-pervading, but the truth is that the seer is actually the reflector. Patañjali shows that the impersonating consciousness is transformed to the level of the seen, so that both the reflector and its reflection, citta, are identical.

It is said in the Bhagavad Gita (VI.19) that as a lamp in a windless place does not flicker, so the sheaths of a cultured yogi do not shake. They remain untouched by the wind of desires for the seer to reflect his own glorious light, atmajyoti, and to dwell in that light, purusDa jñana.

(See I.41; II.18, 23; IV.4.)

IV.24 tat asankhyeya vasanabhih citram api parartham samhatyakaritvat.

tat | that
asankhyeya | innumerable
vasanabhih | knowledge derived from memory, impressions, desires, trust
citram | variegated, filled with, equipped
api | although
parartham | for the sake of another
samhatya | well knitted, firmly united, closely allied
karitvat | on account of it, because of it

Though the fabric of consciousness is interwoven with innumerable desires and subconscious impressions, it exists for the seer on account of its proximity to the seer as well as to the objective world.

Though consciousness has been clouded with impressions (samskaras) throughout eternity, its aim is not only to satisfy the desires of the senses (bhoga) but also to further the emancipation (apavarga) of the soul.

Consciousness is tied by a hidden force both to the seer and to nature. It is well equipped to reach the seer, though it has no ambition of its own except to serve its Lord.

Consciousness has innumerable tendencies and impressions derived from memory, among which longing for pleasures and freedom from pleasures stand out. They are desired impressions. From this, it becomes clear that consciousness, being close to nature and spirit, feels that it does not exist for its own sake but for the sake of purusa and prakrti. In the same way that a lover of God offers food, clothes and comforts as if they were essential to God, consciousness wants to satisfy its Lord with the pleasures of the world. Once consciousness is cultured through yogic discipline, it becomes ripe and illumined. It realizes that the seer is not interested in objects of pleasure and opts to serve with detachment. Now that it understands its inner value, it realizes the triviality of nature’s pleasures and turns towards the path of Self-Realization. Thus transformed, it begins its journey towards emancipation.

If one’s karmas are good, they awaken curiosity and guide it towards the path of kaivalya; they reward one’s effort with the vision of the soul. Yogic practices speed up this process, beginning with the conquest of the body and ending in the vision of the soul. This is salvation.

(See I.41; II.18–19; 22–23; IV.18, 27.)

IV.25 visesadarsinah atmabhava bhavananivrttih

visesa | distinction, specific quality, peculiarity
darsinah | to whom, who sees, the seer
atmabhava | the ideas of the seer, the thought of the seer
bhavana | feeling, reflection
nivrttih | return, disappearance, emancipation

For one who realizes the distinction between citta and atma, the sense of separation between the two disappears.

When the difference between consciousness (citta) and the projector of the consciousness (citi) is recognized, the search for Self-Realization ends.

From IV.15 to IV.25, Patañjali takes the sadhaka progressively to the realization that consciousness is not the all-knower, but simply an instrument of the soul.

For one who is not sure of the difference between consciousness and soul (citta and citi), an analogy is given; the blades of grass which shoot up during the rainy season prove the existence of the hidden seeds.

In this sutra Patañjali explains that the seed of the soul (atma bija) is sown at the right time for the knowledge of the soul (atma jñana) to be firmly established. As we mistake a rope for a snake at first glance, but realize that upon examination that it is a rope, consciousness at this stage realizes that it is not all-knowing but an instrument of the soul. Avidya is vanquished and the practitioner thoroughly understands objective as well as subjective knowledge, without colourization. Here all moods and modes cease to flow, and consciousness is elevated to the optimum degree to behold the exalted state of the seer. The yogi is no longer drawn towards the temptations of the world. His search for the self ends. He becomes a master of yoga and a master of himself. He is yogesvara. This is the substance (svarupa) of yoga and a distinct attribute of the seer (visesa darsinas).

(See I.47; II.10, 12; III.56.)

IV.26 tada vivekanimnam kaivalya pragbharam cittam

tada | then
vivekanimnam | flow of exalted intelligence in consciousness
kaivalya | indivisible state of existence, emancipation
prag | towards
bharam | gravitation, influence, importance
cittam | consciousness

Then consciousness is drawn strongly towards the seer or the soul due to the gravitational force of its exalted intelligence.

When the exalted intelligence is ablaze, consciousness is illumined; it becomes free and tinged with the divine (citta suddhi). Due to this divine light, citta, with its exalted intelligence, is drawn as if by a magnet towards its source: the indivisible seer who is alone, free and full.

Before reaching the state of exalted intelligence, consciousness is attracted more towards the pleasures of the world. When intelligence is free from doubts and prejudices, it gravitates towards the absolute seer.

As a farmer builds dykes between his fields to regulate the flow of water, exalted intelligence builds a dyke for the consciousness, so that it does not move again towards the world, but turns and flows towards union with the divine seer. This is kaivalya, an existence filled with freedom and beatitude. Such a yogi becomes a king amongst men.

Here, I should like to draw the reader’s attention to Patañjali’s use of the word‘gravitation’, showing that in his day science was not behind modern western scientific thought; indeed, it may have been its precursor.

(See I.49; II.25–26; III.55 and IV.29.)

IV.27 tat cchidresu pratyaya antarani samskarebhyah

tat | that
cchidresu | a hole, slit, pore, fissure, defect, rent, flaw, fault, opening
pratyaya | going towards, belief, firm conviction, trust, reliance, confidence, content, notion
antarani | interval, space, intermission
samskarebhyas | from impression

Notwithstanding this progress, if one is careless during the interval, a fissure arises due to past hidden impressions, creating division between the consciousness and the seer.

The force of past impressions may create loopholes in the form of intellectual pride or other varying moods or modes of thought, which breach the consciousness and disturb the harmony and serenity of oneness with the pure Self (atmabhava).

This sutra shows a way to combat old impressions which may influence the consciousness and fissure it.

Patañjali cautions that even for the supreme intelligence, the subconscious samskaras may surface in this intermediate stage and sway the consciousness.

Patañjali advises yogis who wish to be free from worldly life to be constantly vigilant in order to overcome these old habits, lest their consciousness waver between the desire for perfection and actual perfection. The uninterrupted practice of yoga unconditionally vanquishes these fissures in consciousness, and eradicates doubts and prejudices, so that pure wisdom may shine.

(Consciousness in evolved souls is dealt with in I.18, wherein the yogi is on the threshold of sabija and nirbija samadhis.)

In the Bhagavad Gita II.59, Lord Krsna says that inherent desire persists as a fissure even in the most austere renunciate. Only the vision of the Supreme resolves these latent faults forever. From that moment no worldly desire or temptation can endanger the equanimity and virtue of the yogi.

(See I.50; III.55–56.)

IV.28 hanam esam klesavat uktam

hanam | abandonment, extinction, harm, deficiency, damage
esam | of these
klesavat | afflictions
uktam | uttered, spoken, said

In the same way as the sadhaka strives to be free from afflictions, the yogi must handle these latent impressions judiciously to extinguish them.

The gap between consciousness and the seer can breed disharmony and disturbance in one’s self. As fire is deprived of fuel, the yogi has to remove the latent impressions from the consciousness and extinguish them, for it to be in harmony with the seer.

Patañjali advises the yogi to eradicate disturbances by reintroducing yogic disciplines with faith, vigour and vitality. As the sadhaka earlier strove to rid himself of the afflictions of avidya, asmita, raga, dvesa and abhinivesa, the exalted yogi must, through practice, press, dry out and close the perforations in the consciousness.

IV.27 stated that subconscious impressions surface in the form of intellectual pride, which hinders progress towards the goal of union with the divine seer. As roasted seeds do not germinate, so the fire of wisdom must burn out impressions and ambitions, ending their power to generate disturbing thoughts so that the consciousness maintains its union with the seer forever.

IV.29 prasamkhyane api akusidasya sarvatha vivekakhyates dharmameghas samadhih

prasamkhyane | highest form of intelligence, evolution, enumeration, reflection, deep meditation
api | even
akusidasya | free from desires and aversions, one who has no selfish interest or motivation
sarvatha | constant, wholly, entirely, at all times
vivekakhyateh | with awareness, discrimination and attentive intelligence
dharmameghah | rain cloud of virtue, delightful fragrant virtue, rain cloud of justice, showering of dharma
samadhih | supreme spirit, union putting together

The yogi who has no interest even in this highest state of evolution, and maintains supreme attentive, discriminative awareness, attains dharmameghah samadhi: he contemplates the fragrance of virtue and justice.

When the stream of virtue pours in torrents and the consciousness is washed clean of bias, prejudice and ambition, the light of the soul dawns. This is dharma megha samadhi: the fruit of the practice of yoga.

If the yogi, knowing that the highest form of intelligence is also a hindrance, remains uninterested even in this enlightened wisdom as well as in spiritual attainments, virtuousness descends upon him like torrential rain, washing away his individual personality. His only ambition now is to sustain spiritual health. He has purity and clarity. His personality has been transformed. He becomes humane, universal and divine. He lives forever in dharma megha samadhi*, unsurpassed bliss.

He has renounced everything, and is a viveki (one who distinguishes the invisible soul from the visible world), a jñanin (sage), a vairagin (renunciate), and a bhaktan (divine devotee). Now he has attained nirbija samadhi.

(See I.16, 49–50; III.50, 55–56.)

IV.30 tatah klesa karma nivrttih

tatah | thereafter, thence
klesPa | afflictions
karma | action
nivrttih | return, disappear, abstaining from action, cessation from worldly concerns and being engaged in the field of emancipation, bliss and beatitude

Then comes the end of afflictions and of karma.

The effect of dharma megha samadhi is freedom, freedom from the five afflictions and fluctuations. It is the highest form of intelligence and evolution.

From this rain-cloud of virtue, afflictions cease of their own accord and in their place, divine actions with no reactions flow forth like a river from the yogi. This is freedom.

Avidya, the mother of afflictions, is eradicated, root and branch, along with residual subliminal impressions. The sadhaka will not now deviate from the path of divinity nor perform an act that binds, hinders or preconditions his consciousness. He is free from the bondage of karma.

In the Bhagavad Gita (vi.5), Lord Krsna says that each individual has to cultivate himself to become enlightened, and to learn not to degrade himself, for the Self alone is the friend of the individual self, and the Self alone is the enemy of the egotistical self.

As the light of a lamp fades as the oil runs out, so the lamp of the mind is extinguished as its fuel, the actions producing joys and sorrows, is exhausted.

As nirmastana citta is extinguished of its own accord, its root motivation is burnt out leaving no opportunity for the production of effects. The cycle of cause and effect is at an end, and the yogi is freed from the grip of nature. Even in this liberated state, he will not forego his practices. He will continue to maintain them as a divine command, so that the freedom earned may not be lost by neglect *.

(See I.3–5, 47; II.12, 20–21, 24, 52; III.55–56; IV.3, 4 and 25.)

IV.31 tada sarva avarastana malapetasya jñanasya anantyat jñeyam alpam

tada | then
sarva | all
avarana | veil, covering, concealing, surrounding, enclosing, interrupting
mala | impurities
apetasya | devoid of, bereft of, deprived of, removed
jñanasya | of knowledge
anantyat | because of infinity
jñeyam | the knowable
alpam | small, little, trivial

Then, when the veils of impurities are removed, the highest, subjective, pure, infinite knowledge is attained, and the knowable, the finite, appears as trivial.

The stream of virtue eradicates all the veils of impurities. The yogi is devoid of doubts, preconceptions and prejudices. The infinite light of the soul illumines him continuously, and his consciousness and the seer become one. For him, knowledge gained through the organs of cognition and through consciousness are insignificant compared with the infinite wisdom emanating from the soul.

This sutra describes the characteristics of the yogi who is devoid of afflicting actions. His head becomes clear and his heart clean and pure as crystal.

When the clouds disperse, the sky becomes clear. When the sun is bright, no other light is required. When the light of the soul blazes, the yogi does not need mind or intelligence to develop knowledge.

His knowledge springs eternally from the seed of all knowledge (atman) as jñana gastanga (perennial river of wisdom), and he perceives directly. He has reached the state of fulfilment.

(See I.3, 47; II.22, 52; III.49, 56.)

IV.32 tatah krtarthanam parinamakrama samaptih gutanam

tatah

thence, by that

krtarthanam

having fulfilled their duties

parinama

change, alteration, transformation, expansion

krama

regular process, course, order, service, succession

samaptih

the end

gutanam

qualities of nature, sattva, rajas and tamas

When dharmameghah samadhi is attained, qualities of nature (gunas) come to rest. Having fulfilled their purpose, their sequence of successive mutations is at an end.

Having transformed the yogi’s consciousness by the radiation of the rays of the soul, the orderly mutations and rhythmic sequences of the qualities of nature, sattva, rajas and tamas come to an end. Their tasks are fulfilled, and they return to nature.

The essence of intelligence and the essence of consciousness both now retire to rest in the abode of the soul. The master, the seer or the soul, is independent. He keeps the gunas in abeyance, or uses them when necessary. They willingly serve him as devoted servants, without influencing him as before, and without interfering in his true glory.

(See II.18, 22–24.)

IV.33 ksata pratiyogi parinama aparanta nirgrahyah kramah

ksata

moments

pratiyogi

uninterrupted sequences, corresponding to, related to, cooperating with, equally matched, counteracting

parinama

change, transformation, alteration, expansion

aparanta

at the end

nirgrahyah

distinctly recognizable, entirely apprehensible, entirely comprehensible

kramah

regular process, course, order, series, succession

As the mutations of the gunas cease to function, time, the uninterrupted movement of moments, stops. This deconstruction of the flow of time is comprehensible only at this final stage of emancipation.

The sequence of time is related to the order of movements of the gunas of nature. Only the yogi recognizes this inter-relationship and is free from gunas.

The uninterrupted succession of moments is called time. These movements of moments and the uninterrupted mutation of the gunas of nature are distinctly recognizable at the culminating point of transformation.

The average person is not aware of moments: he understands their movement as past, present and future. When moments slip away from one’s awareness, one lives in movements. Memory begins to exert its influence, and consciousness is felt at this juncture in the movements of time.

The perfect yogi lives in the moment without getting involved in movements: the movements of moments are arrested, and psychological and chronological time come to an end. Living in the moment, the yogi sees the seer. This is evolution. Nature eternally helps the intelligence and consciousness towards evolution (parinama nityan), while the seer remains eternally changeless (kutastha nityan). (See IV.21 with reference to the Mutnakopanisad. The first bird, as seer, was called kutastha nityan as it remained steady and still; the other, as consciousness (parinama nityan) was constantly moving in the effort to reach the first one.)

Evolution takes place in a moment. Moment implies instant while movement implies time. When change comes, it arrives at once in a moment, only after a series of efforts involving movements of time. Transformation does not come without effort. As change is noticeable to an average individual, so the end transformation is distinguishable to a yogi by virtue of his pure wisdom: dharma megha samadhi. He is free from time, place and space while others remain trapped in this net. He is neither attracted towards nature nor disturbed by it. He is now a divine yogi.

(See II.18; III.13, 15, 53.)

IV.34 purusartha sunyanam gunanam pratiprasavah kaivalyam svarupapratistha va citisaktih iti

purusartha

fourfold aims of man; discharging one’s duties and obligations to oneself, one’s family, society and country (dharma); pursuit of vocation or profession, following one’s means of livelihood and acquisition of wealth (artha); cultured and artistic pursuits, love and gratification of desires (kama); emancipation or liberation from worldly life (moksa)

sunyanam

devoid of

gutanam

of the three fundamental qualities

pratiprasavah

involution, re-absorption, going back into the original form

kaivalyam

liberation, emancipation, beatitude

svarupa

in one’s own nature

pratistha

establishment, installation, consecration, completion

va

or

citisaktih

the power of pure consciousness

iti

that is all

Kaivalya, liberation, comes when the yogi has fulfilled the purusarthas, the fourfold aims of life, and has transcended the gunas. Aims and gunas return to their source, and consciousness is established in its own natural purity.

The yogi with the stream of virtuous knowledge is devoid of all aims of life as he is free from the qualities of nature. Purusarthas are man’s four aims in life: dharma (science of duty), artha (purpose and means of life), kama (enjoyments of life) and moksa (freedom from worldly pleasures). They leave the fulfilled seer and merge in nature.

Patañjali speaks of the purusarthas only in the very last sutra. This may puzzle the aspirant. Patañjali is an immortal being who accepted human incarnation with its joys and sorrows, attachments and aversions, in order to live through emotional upheavals and intellectual weaknesses to help us to overcome these obstacles and guide us to freedom. Awareness of the aims of life may have been unconsciously hidden in his heart, to surface only at the end of his work. But his thoughts on the purusarthas are implicitly contained in the earlier chapters, and expressed clearly at the end. So I feel that the four padas are, consciously or unconsciously, founded on these four aims and stages of activity.

The first pada deals with dharma, the science of disciplining the fluctuations of the consciousness. For this reason, it begins with the code of conduct, YoganusAsanam. The second pada gives detailed information regarding this practice and the purpose (artha) behind this discipline. Here, the purpose of yoga is physical health and contentment so that one may enjoy the pleasures of the world or seek emancipation (see II.18). The third pada explains the hidden wealth in the form of extraordinary powers which come through yogic practices, tempting one to make use of them for worldly joys (kama) rather than for spiritual purposes. The fourth pada speaks of cultivating actions which cannot produce reactions, and of renouncing the attractions of yogic powers, so that consciousness may dissolve in the light of the soul (moksa) for the very Being to shine forth.

As Patañjali ends his work with moksa, the culmination of the four aims, it is perhaps worth considering the social, cultural and civic conditions of his time which still apply to our lives today. The yogis and sages of India formulated ways and means for creating a harmonious and peaceful life by classifying men’s minds according to their avocations (varnas), their stages of life (asramas) and their aims in life (purusarthas).

Lord Krsna says in the Bhagavad Gita (iv.13) that men are born according to their acquired moral, mental, intellectual and spiritual growth. These are known as duties of communities (varna dharma). Varna is the psychological characteristic of man according to his words, thoughts and deeds. The word means colour, cover, abode, sort, kind and quality. The four orders are divided according to man’s different stages of evolution; they are brahmata (priestly class), ksatriya (warrior class), vaisya (merchant class), and sudra (working class). In the civic sense, they are divisions of labour and not a rigid caste system as they are often held to be.

Again, according to the Bhagavad Gita (xviii.40–44), ‘serenity, faith, self-restraint, austerity, purity, forbearance, uprightness and knowledge to lead a pure and divine life’ are said to be the characteristics of a brahmana. A brahmata is one who knows about the Self (purusa), and has understood and realized the divinity in himself.

‘Heroism, vigour, firmness, resourcefulness, generosity, fighting for the right and upholding justice to maintain truth’ are the allotted functions of a ksatriya.

‘One who cultivates, tends and looks after the needs of society, conserves, is thrifty and frugal, but struggles to earn wisdom and virtue according to his mental capacity’ is a vaisya; while one ‘who is servile, a sycophant, submissive and labours hard’, is a sudra.

These mental characteristics consciously or unconsciously exist even today in all types of vocation. Here is an example of this, applied to yogic discipline. In the beginning of practice, it is a great struggle and effort and one has to sweat profusely in body and brain to get a grasp of it. It is almost like manual labour. This is sudra dharma.

The second stage of evolution in yogic practice begins when one consciously sets out to accumulate experience in order to teach, so as to earn a living. This is vaisya dharma.

When one builds up courage and becomes firm in striving further to develop skill and mastery over the subject, then one gains the authority to share one’s knowledge and experience and to maintain and uphold the subtle refinements of the art. Then one’s sadhana is that of the ksatriya.

If one further proceeds in his practices in order to experience the indivisible, exalted and absolute state of Being (jivatman) which is the body of the Universal Spirit (Paramatman), and surrenders to Him in word, thought and deed, one is a brahmata in yogic sadhana. This is the religious fervour of yoga – the aim of each practitioner.

Man’s life is similarly divided into four stages of development. They are that of the student (brahmacaryasrama), the ordinary householder (grhastasrama), the householder who begins to learn non-attachment (vanaprasthasrama), and finally that of the man detached from worldly thoughts and attached to God (sannyasasrama). The hundred-year span of man’s life is divided into four parts, each of 25 years, so that one may adjust one’s life to evolve through these fourfold stages and fourfold objectives of life towards the experience of True Being.

The aims (purusarthas) are dharma, artha, kama and moksa.

Dharma is the careful observation of one’s ethical, social, intellectual and religious duties in daily life. Strictly speaking this is taught at the level of studentship, but it must be followed throughout life; without this religious quality in daily life, spiritual attainment is not possible.

Artha is acquisition of wealth in order to progress towards higher pursuits of life including understanding the main purpose of life. If one does not earn one’s own way, dependence on another will lead to a parasitic life. One is not meant to be greedy while accumulating wealth, but only to meet one’s needs, so that one’s body is kept nourished so that one may be free from worries and anxieties. In this stage one also finds a partner with whom to lead a householder’s life. One comes to understand human love through individual friendship and compassion, so that one may later develop a universal fellowship leading to the realization of divine love. The householder is expected to fulfil his responsibilities of bringing up his children and helping his fellow men. Therefore, married life has never been considered a hindrance to happiness, to divine love or to the union with the Supreme Soul.

Kama means enjoyment of the pleasures of life provided one does not lose physical health, or harmony and balance of mind. The Self cannot be experienced by a weakling, and the body, the temple of the soul, has to be treated with care and respect. Asana, pranayama and dhyana, therefore, are essential to purify the body, stabilize the mind and clarify the intelligence. One must learn to use the body as a bow, and Asana, pranayama and dhyana as arrows to be aimed at the target – the seer or the soul.

Moksa means liberation, freedom from the bondage of worldly pleasures. It is the experience of emancipation and beatitude, possible only when one is free from physical, psychological, intellectual and environmental afflictions (see I.30–31), and from poverty, ignorance and pride. In this state one realizes that power, knowledge, wealth and pleasure are merely passing phases. Each individual has to work hard to free himself from the qualities of nature (gunas) in order to master them and become a guanitan. This is the very essence of life, a state of indivisible, infinite, full, unalloyed bliss.

These aims involve virtuous actions and are linked with the qualities of nature and the growth of consciousness. When the goal of freedom is attained, the restricting qualities of consciousness and nature cease to exist. At this point of fulfilment, the yogi realizes that the seeker, the seer and the instrument used to cognize the seer is atman. This absoluteness of consciousness is nothing but the seer. Now, he is established in his own nature. This is kaivalyavastha.

The practice of yoga serves all aims of life. Through the proper use of the organs of action, senses of perception, mind, ego, intelligence and consciousness, their purpose of serving their Lord, the seer, comes to an end, and these vestments of the seer, along with the qualities of nature, involute and withdraw, to merge in the root of nature (mula-prakrti).

There, they are held and isolated. By this, the citta becomes pure and supreme. In this supreme state, citta divinely merges in the abode of the seer so that the seer can shine forth in his pristine, pure and untainted state of aloneness. Now, the yogi shines as a king amongst men. He is crowned with spiritual wisdom. He is a krtarthan, a fulfilled soul, who has learned to control the property of nature. He brings purity of intelligence (see III.56) into himself. He is now free from the rhythmic mutation of gunas, of time, and thus free from aims and objects as his search for the soul ends. All the twenty-four principles of nature (see II.19) move back into nature and the twenty-fifth, the seer, stands alone, in kaivalya. He is one without a second, he lives in benevolent freedom and beatitude. With this power of pure consciousness, citta sakti, he surrenders completely to the seed of all seers, Paramatma or God.

Lord Krsna, in the Bhagavad Gita xviii.61–62, explains that ‘the Supreme Ruler abides in the hearts of all beings and guides them, mounting them on wheels of knowledge for spiritual evolution’. He says: ‘one who has earned this divine knowledge should seek refuge by surrendering all actions as well as himself to the Supreme Spirit or God’, so that he journeys from Self-Realization towards God-Realization.

Patañjali began the journey towards the spiritual kingdom with the word atha meaning ‘now’. He ends with the word iti, meaning ‘that is all’. The yogi has reached his goal.

Here ends the exposition of kaivalya, the fourth pada of Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras.

A cloud has two facets. It may cover the sky without bringing rain. This makes the atmosphere gloomy and people become inactive and dull. But if the cloud bursts into rain, the atmosphere is cleared, the sun shines, and people go out to work joyfully.

Similarly, the yogi should not make the consciousness quiet in a tamasic way, but in an alert, sattvic way to shine forth brilliantly to live in the delightful, fragrant rain-cloud of virtue.

*In II.16, Patañjali spoke of avoidable future pains. There, he urged the sadhaka to train his intelligence through right understanding and cultivation of right action from the moment he begins yoga. In this sutra, as the consciousness has been fully ripened, he cautions the yogi that if fissures are formed in the citta, afflictions will affect him instantaneously and not at a future time.

Epilogue

Here end the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, the greatest thinker India has ever known, speaking to us across the ages, at a time when mankind, with its technical and social progress, and its paucity of human and spiritual values, is at a crossroads.

With the ending of the sutras comes the hope of a new beginning, a new age, a rekindling of interest in Patañjali’s universal philosophy, which aims for the good of all mankind.

My words would indeed be in vain if, towards the end of this century, yoga had not become so resoundingly successful, and so widely practised. But yoga is no longer regarded as a ‘fringe’ subject merely for the elite few, though it deals in transcendentals. It is not a will-o’-the-wisp theory, but tangible, scientific and of proven value. The flame of yoga has lighted for sadhakas all over the world the way to physical health, mental strength and spiritual growth.

India is believed to be the mother of civilization. Patañjali is known as the father of yoga. In our own invocatory prayers, we call him a patriarch, spiritual father of many generations, and a revered sage.

His Yoga Sutras is a concise work, eloquent in style, with a minimum of words and an unparalleled wealth of meaning.

The sutras are terse. Yet they are full of gems of wisdom on which to ponder and by which to live. Patañjali has studied the human condition in depth and shown why man suffers, and how he may overcome his sufferings – how each of us can lead a fuller and happier life.

He was the analyst of consciousness, and its various states and moods. His methodology proves an original mind, a clear, penetrating intellect and an astounding analytical ability.

He offers us a total model of consciousness, both in its internal and external aspects; how it turns outwards, how it turns inwards, and how it may repose quietly within itself. He offers us a clear explanation of the natural and physical world wherever it relates to consciousness, sense awareness and human action. He offers a graduated method of evolution and transcendence of consciousness. He describes differences between individuals according to the three qualities of nature, and explains how each one, according to his aptitude and state of intelligence, may integrate himself through the quest for freedom. Interestingly, he does not consider people to be fundamentally different at heart. He leads us from the particular and differentiated to the Absolute and Indivisible.

Yet, he is not a dry psychologist or philosopher. He leads us not into the labyrinthine ramifications of the mind and consciousness but into our inner selves, where we may seek shelter and peace. This peace is eternally present in the core of our being, waiting for us, guiding us, sometimes hidden, sometimes chiding, sometimes welcoming. We find this inner peace through our yoga practice.

Patañjali does not omit India’s unique traditional contribution to human upliftment, the techniques of Asana and pranayama which play their role in bringing about the states of pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi, after the firm foundation has been laid through yama and niyama. A life which does not include these becomes mechanical, theoretical and static.

The Yoga Sutras are set in a universal context as a guide to human existence, valid for all. Doesn’t everyone seek to avoid pain and find pleasure? Patañjali’s pedagogical method is uniquely practical: he provides a minimum of ‘what’ and a maximum of ‘how’. He shows us, step by step, how to grow from our life’s afflictions towards freedom. Reading and re-reading the sutras, we notice how often he throws out a lifeline, so that everyone may catch it somewhere. Each chapter explains, sheds light on and integrates the other chapters.

Senses and mind are brought under control by practice. Through practice we overcome afflictions and develop stability and mature intelligence. Through mature intelligence comes renunciation. Patañjali is totally impartial in exploring how one succeeds or why one fails. ‘Do this’, he says ‘and you will see for yourself.’ He promises us no material rewards; the most alluring prizes are to be shunned.

Whether or not we reach the goal in this life, the journey in yoga to self-culture is itself worth the effort: we all want refinement in our intelligence and progress in our way of thinking. As we end the kaivalya pada, our lasting impression is of light, fragrance, clarity, simplicity, and unrelenting resolve. Though Patañjali is an austere teacher, he is a wholly compassionate guide, always at our elbow.

Ultimately, the yoga system of Patañjali cannot be compared to other traditional or modern structures of thought, knowledge or wisdom. His work has absolute integrity and permanence and is not to be judged from the outside. Only the practitioner, if he practises with faith and renounces with love, will discover its truth.

If we follow Patañjali’s teachings meticulously and diligently, and contemplate their inner meaning in the depths of our own inner selves, we will learn to understand both ourselves and others in a new light. Let us now briefly summarize how this comes about.

According to yoga, there are three qualities of nature (gunas) which permeate the mind (manas), the intelligence (buddhi) and the consciousness (citta). Intelligence may in turn be categorized in three tiers – subtle (susma), subtler (ati suksma) and the most subtle (parama suksma). These can be interpreted as being ‘average, sharp and intensely sharp’ intellectual sensitivities.

Patañjali thus defines various states of intelligence and awareness of consciousness, so that one who practises yoga will be able to recognize his level of personal evolution and, through practice, transcend it till he reaches the very core of being – the seer. From then on he lives in the abode of the soul. This source has no beginning and no end. It is an eternal, uninterrupted flow of the life-force.

Consciousness (citta) has seven facets. They are: emerging, restraining, created, tranquil, attentive, fissured and finally pure, eternal or divine (vyutthana, nirodha, nirmana, prasanta, ekagrata, chidra and finally, suddha, nitya or divya).

If a practitioner uncovers these seven aspects of consciousness, he reaches that exalted, indivisible state of existence where the search for self ends and the seeker becomes the seer.

Patañjali addresses each type of sadhaka according to his level of intelligence and awareness. For those of average intellect, he explains five types of afflictions (klesas) and the ways in which they cause disturbances in the citta. For those of sharp intellect, he stresses the study of the five fluctuations (vrttis) which may lead to afflictions. In speaking to the most keenly sensitive, he explains the fissures which may occur in the very well of consciousness. He guides each level of practitioner, in ways appropriate to his own evolution, in overcoming the obstacles he encounters on his path of spiritual growth.

Patañjali threads his themes throughout the work, and certain ideas recur. Each time they recur, one is given a slightly different, and deeper, insight. For example, in discussing the effects of actions (karmaphala), he explains that though these may vary slightly, their content remains intact (compare II.13–14 with IV.1–2). Almost identical explanations are given in II.20 and IV.18. For those of average intellect, he speaks of sorrows and pains which have yet to come and can be avoided by discipline (II.16); for those of the most subtle and sensitive intellect, he explains that the effect of fissures created in the consciousness is experienced at once (IV.28). And he gives identical ways of overcoming afflictions and disturbances in I.23, 29; II.11 and IV.6 – but by now, one’s understanding is deeper and more subtle.

These examples are not exhaustive. In the future, it will be fruitful to make a further comparative study of the sutras and their relevance in various fields – for example, the education of children.

The initial disciplining of a child through the ‘don’ts’ and ‘dos’ is comparable to the yamas and niyamas. As he grows older he is encouraged to play games with other children. He learns to co-ordinate his organs of action with his organs of perception. In the process he develops friendliness, companionship and a sporting spirit. This corresponds to Asana and pranayama. When he starts going to school, his mind is turned from fun towards study: here we see the application of the principle of pratyahara. The process of immersing himself in his studies is dharana. Achieving the goal of his education is dhyana. At this juncture, he starts to question whether this progress has been for selfish or selfless reasons, and realizes that only selflessness in his approach will lead to profundity of life.

However, the most important message of this inspired seer, coming to us through the ages, is that the real purpose of our life is to cross the ocean of illusion, from the shore of worldly pleasures to the other shore, of emancipation and eternal bliss.

APPENDIX I
A Thematic Key to the Yoga Sutras

In this analytical appendix, I have covered Patañjali’s entire astanga yoga, the methods of its practice, the causes of sorrows, the afflictions and disturbances and the means to overcome them, the renunciation of worldly pleasures, the properties and effects of yoga and the ways to emancipation.

The principal themes are arranged so as to provide a quick reference for the reader to understand and grasp them more easily.

→ = see entry

abhyasa, anusthana or sadhana (practice)
I.1–2, 12–14, 20, 23, 32–39
II.1, 25–26, 29–34, 43, 46–47, 49–51, 54
II.1–3, 6, 9–12, 15
IV.3

absorption → samadhi and samapatti

accomplishments or properties of yoga →vibhutis

adepts →siddha yogins

afflictions →klesas

antarayas (obstacles)
I.30–31
II.33–34
III.38, 52
IV.4, 5, 10, 27

anusthana (practice)→abhyasa, anusthana and sadhana

aspirants → sadhakas

astanga yoga (eight limbs of yoga)

(i) eight aspects
II.29

(ii) effects in general
I.3, 17–19, 29, 41–51
II.2, 11, 25, 27–28, 35–45, 48, 52–53, 55
III.5, 13, 46–47, 51, 53, 55
IV.5, 23, 25–26, 29–34

(iii) instant effects
I.21
III.54

(iv) time-bound effects
I.22
II.22
III.15
IV.6, 30

Atma jñana (knowledge of the Self)
II.20
III.36
IV.18, 22

Atman (Self)
I.3, 16, 41, 47
II.20
III.35, 36, 56
IV.25, 29, 34

awareness (prajña) → sadhana’s effect on the quality of awareness cakras (energy centres)

III.29 dhruva corresponding to ajña cakra
30 nabhicakra corresponding to matipuraka cakra
31 kantha kupa corresponding to visuddhi cakra
32 kurma nadi corresponding to svadhisthana cakra
33 murdha jyoti corresponding to sahasrara cakra
35 hrdaya corresponding to anahata cakra

cause and effect theory → karma cakra

citta (consciousness)

(i) waves in the consciousness
I.5–6, 30–31, 41
II.3–4, 11
III.9–13, 50
IV.4–5, 15–17, 20–27

(ii) control of the consciousness
I.2, 23, 32–39, 51
II.1, 11, 25–26, 28–32, 34, 46, 49–51, 54
III.1–3, 6, 9–12, 14–15, 53
IV.3–4, 13–22, 24

citta jñana (knowledge of consciousness)
I.5–6, 30–31, 41
II.3–4, 11
III.9–13, 50
IV.4–5, 15–17, 19–24, 26–27

citta prasadanam (peace of consciousness)
I.33–39, 47
II.1, 52
III.5
IV.25

consciousness→ citta
(fluctuations of the –) → klesas and vrttis
(knowledge of –) → citta jñana
(peace of –)→ citta prasadanam

energy centres → cakras

ethical discipline → yama and niyama

fluctuations (vrttis) → klesas and vrttis

knowledge of consciousness → citta jñana

knowledge of nature →prakrti jñana

knowledge of the self → atma jñana

God → Purusa visesa or Isvara

kaivalya or moksa (liberation)
I.3, 47, 51
II.18, 25, 27, 29
III.36, 51, 56
IV.18, 25, 29, 32–34

kala (time)
I.21–22, 51
II.47
III.9–10, 12–16, 53
IV.12–15, 20, 32–33

karma cakra (cause and effect theory)
(i) general
II.15, 22
IV.7–11, 13

(ii) cessation of cause and effect
I.41, 43, 45, 50
II.15, 22–23, 25–26
III.5, 53
IV.7, 29–30, 32

klesas and vrttis (afflictions and fluctuations of consciousness)
(these two aspects are inter-related and interwoven and they are also correlated to disease; see I.30–31)

(i) general
I.4, 30–31
II.3

(ii) causes
II.3, 11–14, 17, 21–24, 34
III.38, 52
IV.10, 27–28

(iii) different types
I.5–11, 30–31
II.3, 5–9

(iv) qualities
I.5–11
II.4–10
IV.13

(v) methods of minimizing or eradicating them
I.29, 39
II.2
III.5
IV.6, 29

(vi) methods of preventing them
I.32–33
II.16, 26, 33
III.51
IV.28

liberation → kaivalya or moksa

moksa→ kaivalya or moksa

nature
(conjunction of – and seer) →prakrti purusa samyoga
(knowledge of –) → prakri jñana

niyama → yama and niyama

obstacles → antarayas

peace of consciousness → citta prasadanam

practice → abhyasa, anusthana or sadhana

prajña → sadhana’s effect on the quality of awareness

prakri jñana (gnosis of nature)
II.18–19

prakrti purusa samyoga (conjunction of nature and seer)
I.4
II.17–18, 20–23
III.45–48
IV.7

purusa (seer)
Conjunction of nature and seer →prakrti purusa samyoga

Purusa Visesa or IuBsvara (God)

(i) definition
I.24–26
IV.34

(ii) meditation on God
I.27–29

renunciation → detachment or vairagya

sadhakas (aspirants)
Qualities of aspirants
I.20–22

sadhana (practice) →abhyasa, anusthana or sadhana

sadhana (it’s effect on the quality of awareness)
I.48–49
III.6, 15

samadhi and samapatti (absorption)
I.17–19, 41–51
II.2, 45
III.3, 8, 11
IV.25, 29, 31

seer (purusa)
Conjunction with nature → prakrti purusa samyoga

self →atman

siddha yogins (adepts)
I.19, 40
IV.1–3

time → kala

vairagya (renunciation or detachment)
(i) practice needed to develop renunciation
I.12–16, 23, 32–33
II.4, 11, 20, 29–30, 32–33, 43–47, 49, 51, 54
III.51

(ii) methods
I.2, 12–16, 23, 32–33, 40, 49–51
11.29, 33, 54
III.51

vibhutis (accomplishments or properties of yoga)
II.27–28, 35–36
III.16–50, 54–55

vrttis (fluctuations) → klesas and vrttis

yama and niyama
II.30–45

yoga (eight limbs of –) →astaaga yoga

APPENDIX II
Interconnection of Sutras

The reader will notice that many of Patañjali’s ideas recur throughout the Yoga Sutras. Certain key themes recur many times; each time, giving new insight that deepens our understanding. At the end of the commentary on each sutra I have listed the sutras that convey the same meaning. This cross-reference is a summary guide to these thematically interconnected sutras. Readers who use it as an aid to their study will find their understanding of Patañjali’s text, and of yoga, greatly enhanced.

APPENDIX III
Alphabetical Index of Sutras

APPENDIX IV
Yoga in a Nutshell

Table 15: Cosmogony

Table 16: Causes for fluctuations and absoluteness, emancipation and freedom

Table 17: The cycle of the seven states of awareness and consciousness

Table 18: The tree of astastanga yoga

List of Tables and Diagrams

  1. Levels of sadhaka, levels of sadhana and stages of evolution

  2. Stages of vairagya (detachment) and the involution of prakrti,

  3. Levels of sadhakas and types of awareness

  4. Stages in the purification of citta

  5. The stages of samadhi

  6. The acts of kriyayoga and the paths of the Bhagavad Gita

  7. The five klesas (afflictions) and the brain

  8. The evolution of citta

  9. The evolution and involution of prakrti,

10. The seven states of consciousness

11. The seven kosas (body sheaths) and corresponding states of consciousness

12. The order of transformations of citta and prakrti,

13. The four planes of consciousness

14. The elements and their properties

15. Cosmogony

16. Causes for fluctuations and absoluteness, freedom and emancipation

17. The cycle of the seven states of awareness and consciousness

18. The tree of astastanga yoga

Glossary

a-
Non-

abhava
Non-existence, non-occurrence, absence of feeling

abhedhya
Indivisible existence

abhibhava
Overpowering, subjugating

abhijata
Transparent, learned, inborn, distinguished, noble

abhinivesa
Clinging to life, fear of death, intentness of affection

abhivyakti
Manifestation, revelation

abhyantara
Internal

abhyasa
Practice, repetition

adarsa
Faculty of vision, mirror

adhibhautika roga
Diseases caused by the imbalance of elements in the body

adhidaivika roga
Genetic, allergic diseases

adhigama
To find, discover, acquire mastery

adhimatra
Intense, sharp in understanding

adhimatratama
Supremely intense

adhisthatrtvam
Over-lordship, omnipotent

adhvabheda
Different condition

adhyah
Stands for

adhyasa
Superimposition

adhyatma
Supreme Soul (manifested as an individual soul)

adhyatma
Expansion of the seer, diffusion of the soul, sight

prasadanam
of the soul

adhyatmika roga
Self-inflicted diseases

adi
So forth

adini
The others

Adisesa
The Lord of serpents, couch of Lord Visnu

adrsta
Unperceived, invisible, fate, destiny

advaita
Monism expounded by Sri sankaracarya

agama
Spiritual doctrines testimony

Agastya
Name of a sage

Ahalya
Wife of sage Gautama

aham
Personal pronoun ‘I’

ahamkara
Ego, pride, the making of self, sense of self

ahimsa
Non-violence, non-injury, harmlessness

ajña cakra
Energy centre situated between the centre of the two eyebrows

ajñana
Ignorance

ajñata
Unknown

akalpita
Unimaginable

akanksa
Ambitions

akara
Form

akaratam
Non-performance, non-accomplishment

akasa
Ether, space, one of the five elements of nature

aklista
Incognizable, non-disturbing, non-painful

akrama
Without succession, without sequence

aKrsna
Non-black

akusida
Free from desires and aversions

alabdha bhumikatva
Not being able to hold on to what is undertaken, missing the point

alambana
Support, dependent upon

alasya
Laziness

alinga
(a = not; linga = mark) without mark, an unmanifested form, having no characteristic mark

aloka
Looking, seeing, sight, light, lustre, splendour

alokya
Insight

alpam
Small, little, trivial

amanaskatva
(a = not; manas = mind) a state of being, that is, without the influence of the mind

Amaraka
Name of a king

amrta
Nectar

amrta manthana
Nectar, produced at the time of churning of the ocean by the demons and angels

anabhighata
Non-resistance, indestructibility, cessation of disturbances

anaditvam
Time immemorial, existing from eternity

anagata
Unknown, future

anahata cakra
Energy centre situated in the seat of the heart

ananda
Bliss, elation, felicity

anandamaya kosa
The blissful sheath

ananda prajña
Knowledge of elation

ananta
Infinite, eternal, boundless, inexhaustible

anantaryam
Uninterrupted sequence

anasayam
Freedom from impressions or influences

anastam
Not destroyed, not lost

anatma
Non-self, something different from the Soul

anavaccbeda
Not bound, continuous, undefined, without a limit

anavadharatam
Not comprehensible

anavasthitattva
Inability to maintain the achieved progress

anekesam
Innumerable

anga
A component aspect, limb, body, constituent part, member, division

angamejayatva
Tremors or unsteadiness in the body

angirasa
Author of rgveda

atima
As minute as an atom, atomization, the capacity to make oneself infinitely small, one of the eight supernatural powers

anista
Undesirable, unfavourable

anitya
Non-eternal

annamaya kosa
Anatomical body of man

antahkarana
Conscience

antara
Internal

antara kumbhaka
(antara = internal; kumbhaka = retention of breath) retention of breath after inhalation

antaranga
(antara = internal; anga =limb) internal, interior part

antaranga sadhana
Practice concerning the internal quest

antaratma
Universal Self

antaratma sadhana
Practice concerning the innermost quest

antara vrtti
Inhalation, internal thought waves

antaraya
Impediment, hindrance, obstacle

antardhanam
Invisibility, disappearance

antardrsya
Intuitive vision

anubhavikajñana
Knowledge gained by experience

anubhuta
Perception

anugamat
By following, approaching

anugutanam
Accordingly

anukarah
Imitation, following

anumana
Logic, doubt, reflection, inference

anumodita
By compliancy, abetment

anupasya
Seeing, perceiving, one who sees

anupati
Following a sequence, closely followed

anusAsanam
Instructions, directions, code of conduct, advice, order, command, introduction or guidelines given in procedural form

anusayi
(anu = close; sayi = connection) close connection, close attachment

anusravika
Listening or heard, resting on the Vedas or tradition

anusthana
Devoted practice

anuttama
Supreme

anvaya
All-pervasiveness, association, interpenetration

anya
Other, another, otherwise, distinct

anyah
Different

ap
Water, one of the five elements of nature

apana
One of five vital energies which moves in the lower trunk controlling elimination of urine, semen and faeces

aparanta
Death, at the end

aparigraha
Freedom from avarice, without greed, non-acceptance of gifts

aparinamitva
Changelessness

apattau
Identical, identified, assumed, having accomplished

apavarga
Emancipation, freedom, beatitude, liberation

apetasya
Bereft of, devoid of, removed

api
Also, in addition to, although

apramanakam
Unrecognized, unobserved

apratisamkramayah
Changeless, non-moving

aprayojakam
Useless, unserviceable

apunya
Vice

apurat
Becoming full, being full

arambhavastha
Beginner’s stage

arista
Omens, portents

Arjuna
Hero of Mahabharata, receiver of knowledge of yoga from Lord Krsna in Bhagavad Gita

artha
Means of livelihood, purpose, means, the second of the four aims of life

arthamatra nirbhasa
(artha = cause, aim, purpose, means, reason; matra = alone; nirbhasa = manifestation) shining alone in its purest form

arthavatva
Purposefulness, fullness

asa
Desire

asamprajñata
(a = non; samprajñata = distinction) a non-distinguishable state

asampramosah
Without stealing from anything else, not slipping away

asamprayogah
Not coming in contact

asamsaktah
Indifference to praise and revilement, non-attachment

asamsargah
Non-contact, non-intercourse

Asana
A seat, posture, position; third of the eight aspects of astanga yoga

asamgah
Non-contact

asankhyeya
Innumerable

asankirtayoh
Distinction from each other

ahsannah
Drawn near, approached

asat
Non-being

asayah
A chamber, reservoir

asevitah
Zealously practised, performed assiduously

assah
Desires

asmita
Pride, egoism, ‘I’ consciousness

asrama
Stages of development, hermitage

asraya
Support

asrayatvam
Substratum, foundation, dependence

asargastasarganga yoga
Eightfold disciplines or aspects of yoga: yamaniyama, Asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi

asta siddhi

astsiddhi
Eight supernatural powers: atima, mahima, laghima, garima, prapti, prakamya, isatva and vasitva

astau
Eight

asteya
Non-stealing, non-misappropriation

asthi
Bones

asuci
Impure

asuddhi
Impurities

asukla
Non-white

asura
Demon

asvada
Faculty of taste

asya
Of this

atala
Nether world or lower region, one of the seven patalas, being the first among them

atha
Now

atikranthi bhavaniya
Feeling of the highest knowledge of the seer and having attained the strength of paravairagya

atiprasangat
Too many, superfluity

atita
The past

atma, atman
The individual, individual spirit

atmabhava
Feeling the soul

atmabija
Seed of the soul

atmadarsana
Reflection of the soul

atmajñBana
Knowledge of the self

atmajyoti
Light of the soul

atmakam
Being one with the self

atma prasadanam
A glimpse or the reflection of the soul

atma saksatkara
Realization of the soul, dwelling in the abode of the soul

atyanta
Absolute, extreme

am
Sacred syllable, sabda Brahman

aura
spiritual lustre

Aurobindo
Sage of Pondicherry

ausadha
A drug, herb, medicine, remedy

ausadhi
Herbs

avarata
Veil, covering

avastha
A condition, state

avasthanam
Stand, rest, dwell, abide, reside

avastha parinama
Transformation towards the final state of refinement

avesah
Occupation, entrance

avidya
Want of spiritual knowledge, lack of wisdom, ignorance

aviplava
Unfluctuating, undisturbed

avirati
Desires, gratifications

avisayi
Unperceived, beyond the reach of the mind

avisesa
(a = tall, reaching up to; viveka = discriminative understanding; khyate = summit of knowledge) the glory or the essence of knowledge

avyapadesya
Latent, lying in potential form

ayama
Ascension, expansion, extension

ayuh
Span of life

ayurveda
Science of life and health, Indian medicine

badhana
Obstruction

bahiranga
External part, external limb

bahiranga sadhana
External quest

bahya
Outside, external

bahyavrtti
Exhalation, movement of the outbreath, external thought waves

bala
Moral and physical strength

bandha
Block, lock, a practice of hatha yoga

Bhagavad Gita
A classical text of yoga, a dialogue between Lord Krsna and Arjuna, containing the celestial sayings of Lord Krsna

bhaktan
Devotee

bhakti
Devotion

bhakti marga
Path of devotion

bhakti yoga
Yoga of devotion

bharam
Gravitation

Bharati
Wife of Mandana Misra, a staunch practitioner of purva mimamsa

bhasya
Commentary

bhava
In a state of being, existence

bhavana
Feeling, understanding, reflection

bhavanarthah
Contemplating with meaning and feeling

bhedah
Division

bhedat
Being different

Bhima
Hero of Mahabharata, brother of Arjuna

bhoga
Enjoyment, pleasure, experience of sensual joys

bhogAsana
Asanas of pleasure

bhranti darsana
Delusion, false idea, supposition, bewilderment, perplexity, confusion

bhrasta
Fallen down, fallen out, stamped from, depraved, fallen from grace

bhu
Being, becoming, land, ground

bhuloka
The terrestrial world, the earth

bhumisu
Degree, stage

bhuta
Living beings

bhutatvat
In life

bhutendriyesu
In case of elements, body, senses of perception, organs of action

bhuvarloka
Aerial region, one of the divisions of the Universe, the space between earth and heaven

bija
A seed, source, origin, beginning

bimba-pratibimba
(bimba = reflector; pratibimba = reflected image;

vada
vada = exposition) exposition of double reflection

Brahma
The first deity of the Hindu Triad, the Creator

brahmacari
Celibate

brahmacarya
Celibacy, continence, chastity, stage of studentship to learn wordly as well as spiritual knowledge, first of the four stages of life

brahmacaryasrama
The first of the four religious stages or orders

Brahmajnana
The realization of the Supreme, the highest knowledge

brahmakapala
Energy centre, intelligence of the head, thousand-petalled cakra

Brahman
The Universal Spirit, Universal Soul

brahmata
Priest class, one who has realized the Self, one of the four varnas or classes of Hinduism

Brahma Sutra
Treatise on the knowledge of the Self

brahmavarista
Living in the vision of the soul

brahmavid varista
Vision of the soul, beyond words

Brahmendra Swami
Guru of Bajirao I of Maharastra (India), who used to sit on a palm leaf to float on water

Brhaspati
Preceptor of Indra, Lord of heavens

Buddha
The founder of Buddhism

buddhi
Intelligence

buddhi buddheh
Cognition of cognitions

ca
And, both, as well as, also

Caitanya
Saint from Bengal (India)

cakra
Energy centres situated inside the spinal column

caksu
Eye

candra
Moon, referred to the mind

candra sthana
Centre of para-sympathetic nervous system

caritadhikara
Power of attaining one’s object, serving a purpose

caturthah
The fourth

ced
If

chidra
A pore, a fissure, a rent, a flaw

cinta
Disturbed thought, anxious thought

cintana
Deliberate thinking

cit
Thought, emotion, intellect, feeling, disposition, vision, to perceive, to notice, to know, to understand, to desire

citi
The self, the seer

citisakti
Power of the self

citram
Bright, diversified, equipped

citra nadi
One of the nadis sprouting from the heart

citta
Consciousness, a composite word for mind, intellect and ego (pride or the sense of self)

citta bhava
Feeling of consciousness

citta jnana
Knowledge of the consciousness

citta laya
Reposed consciousness, dissolution of consciousness

citta maya
Full of consciousness

citta prasadanam
Diffusion of the consciousness, favourable disposition of the consciousness

citta sakti
Power of consciousness

citta suddhi
Purity of the consciousness

citta viksepa
Scattered consciousness, distraction

citta vrtti
Movement in the consciousness

dairghyata
Expansion, expansive

darsana
Seeing, looking, seeing the mind, perception, sight, vision, knowledge

darsinah
The seer

daurmanasya
Fickle-mindedness, despair

dehabhimanatva
Believing that the perishable body is the self (atman)

desa
Place, spot, region

deva
Angel

devadatta Upavayu
which causes yawning and induces sleep

Devayani
Daughter of sukracarya – the preceptor of demons, wife of king Yayati

dhairya
Courage

Dhammapada
Treatise of Buddhism

dhanamjaya
Upavayu which produces phlegm, nourishes and remains in the body even after the death and inflates the corpse

dharana
Concentration, attention, focusing, sixth of the eight aspects of astanga yoga

dharma
First of the four aims of life, science of duty, religious duty, virtue

dharma megha
(dharma = duty; megha = cloud) rain-cloud of justice, delightful fragrance of virtue

dharma parinama
Transformation towards that which is to be held fast or kept, virtue, justice

dharmendriya
The sense of virtuousness, the inner voice

dharmi
Virtuous, religious, pious, characteristic

dharmic
Pertaining to dharma

dhatu
Constituent element or an essential ingredient of the body

Dhruva
Son of Uttanapada, who became the king of dhruvaloka; stable, constant, permanent, tip of the nose

dhruva naksanra
The Polar Star, the North Pole

dhyana
Meditation, reflection, observation, contemplation, seventh of the eight aspects of astanga yoga

dhyanajam
Born of meditation

dipti
Radiation, brilliancy, lustre

dirgha
Long (as space or time), lasting long

divya
Divine

divya citta
Divine consciousness

drasta,
Purusaseer, one who sees

drdhabhumi
(drdha = firm; bhumi = ground) firm ground

drk
Power of consciousness

drsam
Seen object

drsta
Visible, perceptible

drstra
The knower, the seer

drsya
To be seen, to be looked at, visible

drsyatvat
On account of its knowability or perceptibility

duhkha
Sorrow, pain, grief, distress

dvandvah
Dualities, opposite

dvesa
Aversion, hate, dislike

eka
One, singular, alone, unique

ekagra
Intent upon one object, one-pointed attention, concentration, fixity. Also eka = one without a second; agra = prominent, root, base, excellent, summit, i.e. indivisible soul

ekagrata
One-pointed attention on the indivisible self

ekagrata parinama
Mode of transformation towards one-pointed attention

eka rupatva
One in form

eka samaya
Same time

ekatanata
Uninterrupted flow of attentive awareness

ekatmata
Having same nature

ekatra
Together, jointly

ekatvat
Due to oneness, on account of oneness

ekendriya
One sense, that is the mind

esa
God

esam
Of these

etena
By this

eva
Also, alone, only

gamana
Passage, going, movement, motion

gandha
Smell

garima
Becoming heavier, one of the eight supernatural powers

gati
Movement, motion, path, cause of event

ghatavastha
(ghata = body compared to pot; avastha = stage) the second stage of practice where one has to understand the functions of the body

Gonika
Mother of Patañjali

grahana
Seizing, perceiving, understanding, comprehension

grahya
To be seized, perceivable, understood

grhasthasrama
The second of the four religious stages of life, that of the householder

grhitr
One disposed to seize or take, the perceiver

guna
Qualities of nature: sattva, rajas and tamas

gunaparvani
Changes or stages in qualities

guatitan
Free from the qualities of nature

gutatmanah
Nature of qualities

gunavaitrstyam
Indifference to the qualities of nature

guru
(gu = darkness; ru = light) a preceptor who removes ignorance and gives knowledge

ha
The seer, sun. In Hatha Yoga Pradipika it represents Prana

halahala
A sort of deadly poison

hanam
Act of leaving, stopping, quitting

hanopayah
Means to remove deficiency

Hanuman
Name of a monkey chief, son of the wind

hasti
Elephant

hatha
Willpower, force

hathayoga
A particular path of yoga that leads towards Self-Realization through vigorous and rigorous discipline

hathayogi
One who practises hathayoga, a master of hathayoga

hetu
Motive, cause, ground, reason, purpose

hetutvat
Caused by, on account of

heya
Grief, dislike

heyaksita
Grief to be discarded, eliminated, destroyed

Himalaya
Abode of snow

himsa
Violence, injury

Hiranyagarbha
Golden womb, Brahman

hlada
Pleasant

hrdaya
The heart, the mind, the soul

hrdaya punarika
The lotus of the heart

iccha
To cause to desire, will

iccha prajna
Knowledge of the will

ina
A nadi corresponding to the sympathetic nervous system

Indra
The Lord of the Heaven

indriya
Senses of perception, organs of action, mind

indriyamaya
Oneness with the senses

isah
God

isatva
Supremacy over all, one of the eight supernatural powers

Ista devata
The desired deity

isvara
God, Lord

isvara pranidhana
(pra = fullness; ni = under; dhana = placement) surrender of oneself toGod

itaratra
At other times, elsewhere

itaresam
Another, rest, whereas, different from, for others

itaretara
One for the other

iti
That is all, thus

iva
Like, as it were, as if, appearance

jaea
Cold, slow, dull, foolish, unemotional

Jada Bharata
Name of a sage

jada citta
Unintelligent or dull state of consciousness

jagrata
Conscious, careful, wakefulness

jagratavastha
Wakeful state

jah
Born

jala
Water

janma
Birth, existence, life, life-time

jatyantara parinama
Transformation in the state of birth

jaya
Conquest, mastery

jayante
Produced

Jayavantiyambika
Jada Bharata’s mother

jihvagra
Root of the tongue

jijñasa
To know, to enquire

jivamrta
Nectar of life

jivatma
The living or individual soul enshrined in the human body, the vital principle, that principle of life which renders the body capable of motion and sensation

jñana
Knowing, knowledge, cognizance, wisdom

jñana Ganga
Ganges of wisdom, river of knowledge

jñanamarga
Path of knowledge

jñana yoga
Yoga of knowledge

jñanendriya
Senses of perception

Jñaneswar
13th century saint of Maharastra

jñani
A learned man, a wise person

jñata
Known, perceived, understood

jñeyam
The state of being cognizable

jugupsa
Disgust, censure, abuse, reproach

jvalanam
Shining, burning, blazing

jyotisi
Light

jyotismati
Luminous, brilliant

Kabir
15th- and 16th-century poet, devotee of Lord Rama

kaivalya
Absolute state of aloneness, eternal emancipation

kaivalya pada
Fourth part of the Yoga Sutras on perfect emancipation

kaka mudra
(kaka = crow; mudra = seal) one of the seals, wherein the tongue is rolled to touch the upper palate

kala
Time, period of time

kala cakra
Wheel of time, movement of moments

kala phala
Fruit of time

Kalimata
Goddess of destruction

kama
Wish, desire, love, lust, the third of the four aims of life

kanda
A bulbous root

kandasthana
Root centre of nadis in the region of the navel

kantaka
A thorn, the point of a needle or pin

kantha
Throat

kantha kupa
Pit of the throat (visuddhi cakra)

Kapila
Name of a sage, the founder of Samkhya philosophy

karana
Cause

karana sarira
Causal body

karita
To provoke

karitvat
On account of it, because of it

karma
An act, action, performance, duty, universal law of cause and effect

karma marga
Path of action

karma phala
Fruit of action

karmayoga
Yoga of action

karmendriya
Organs of action

karuna
Compassion

karya sarira
Gross body

karya suddhi
Clean of action

kathamta
How, in what way, whence

kausalam
Well-being, skillfulness, cleverness

kaya
Body, bodily action, deed

kevala
Alone, pure, unmingled, perfect in one’s self

kevala kumbhaka
Non-deliberate retention of breath

khecari mudra
Cutting the frenum of the tongue and increasing its length to touch the eye-brow and then to fold it back to close the wind and food pipes

kim
What

klesa
Affliction, pain, distress

klista
Afflicted, tormented, pained, hurt

kosa
Sheath, layer

krama
Regular course, regular succession, order, sequence

kriya
Action, execution, practice, accomplishment

kriyamata karma
Action which generates fruit in future lives

kriya yoga
Yoga of action

krkara
One of the five upavayus which prevents substances from passing through the nasal passages and makes one sneeze or cough

krodha
Anger

Krsna
The eighth incarnation of Lord Visnu, who recited Bhagavad Guta; it also means black

krta
Directly done

krtartham
Whose purpose has been fulfilled

krtarthan
A fulfilled soul

ksana
A moment, an infinitesimal unit in time

ksana cakra
Orderly rhythmic procession of moments

ksanriya
Warrior class, martial race, one of the four vartas or classes of Hinduism

ksaya
Diminish, destroy, decay, destruction

ksetram
A place, field, origin

ksetrika
A farmer, peasant

ksetrikavat
Like a farmer

ksina
Discarded, destroyed

ksipta
Neglected or distracted

ksiyate
Destroyed, dissolved

ksut
Hunger

kumbhaka
Retention of breath

kundalini
Divine cosmic energy

kupa
Pit, well

kurma
Tortoise, second incarnation of Lord Visnu, one of the upavayus which controls the movements of the eyelids and regulates the intensity of light for sight by controlling the size of the iris

kurmanadi
Name of a nadi in the epigastric region

kusala
Proficiency

kutstha nityan
The changeless seer

labhah
Acquired, gained, obtained, profit

laghima
Weightlessness, one of the eight supernatural powers

laghu
Light

laksana
Character, quality, distinctive mark

laksana parinama
Transformation towards qualitative change

lavanya
Grace, loveliness, complexion

laya
Dissolution, rest, repose

linga
With mark

lingamatra
Mark, indicator

lobha
Greed

mada
Pride

madhu
Sweet, pleasant, agreeable, delightful

madhu bhumika
A yogin of the second order

madhu pratika
Turned towards the delightful state of pleasantness

Madhva
The acarya of the 13th century, who expounded the dvaita (dualism) philosophy

madhya
Moderate, middle, centre

madhyama
Moderate

maha
Great

Mahabhasya
A treatise on grammar

mahaloka
One of the aerial regions

mahat
Great, mighty, the great principle, cosmic intelligence, universal consciousness

mahatma
Great soul

mahavideha
Great discarnation, disembodied state

mahavidya
Exalted knowledge

mahavratam
Mighty vow

mahima
Greatness, majesty, glory, one of the supernatural powers of increasing the size at will, illimitable bulk

maitri
Friendliness

majja
Marrow, one of the seven constituents of the body

mala
Impurity

mamsa
Flesh, one of the seven constituents of the body

manas
Mind

manasa
Thought

manas cakra
Seat of mind

Mandana Misra
A follower of Purva Mimamsa (known as Karmakatna)

Mandavya
A sage who had supernatural powers

mani
Jewel, a gem, a flawless crystal

manipuraka cakra
Energy centre at the navel area

manojavitvam
Speed of mind, quickness in mind

manojñana
Knowledge of the mind

manolaya
Alert passive state of mind

manomaya kosa
The mental or the emotional sheath

manoprajña
Awareness of mind

manovrtti
Thought-waves

mantra
Incantation

manusya
Man

marga
Path

matra
Alone, only

matsarya
Malice

matsya
Fish

Matsyendranath
Father of hatha yoga

meda
Fat, one of the seven constituents of the body

meru
Name of a mountain

mithya jñana
(mithya = false, sham, illusory; jñana= knowledge) false knowledge

moha
Delusion, frenzy, infatuation, error, the state of being enamoured

moksa
Liberation, deliverance, release, the fourth religious stage or order of life

mrdu
Mild, feeble

muda
Stupid, dull, ignorant

mudina
Joy

mudra
Seal, a practice of hatha yoga

muladhara cakra
Energy centre situated at the root of the spine

mula prakrti
Root of nature

Mutnakopanisad
One of the important Upanisads

murdha
The head, the top

murdhajyoti
Energy centre at the seat of ajña cakra

murdhani
The centre of the head

na
Not

nabhi
Navel

nabhi cakra
Energy control at the navel area (also known as manipuraka cakra)

nadi
Energy channel, channel through which energy flows in the subtle body (main nadis are ida, pitgala, susumna, citra, gadhari, hastijihva, pusa, yasasvini, alambusa, kuhu, sarasvati, varuni, visvodhari, payasvini, samkhiti, kausiki,sura, raka, vijñana and kurma)

naga
One of the five upavayus. It relieves pressure of the abdomen by belching

Nahusa
King who became the Lord of the heavens

Nandanar
A devotee of South India

Nandi
Son of Kamadhenu, giver of plenty, vehicle of Lord siva

Narada
Sage and author of aphorisms of bhakti or devotion (Narada Bhakti Sutras)

Nara Narayana
Son of Dharma and grandson of Brahma

Narasimha
Incarnation of Visnu as half man and half lion

nasagra
Tip of the nose

nastam
Lost, destroyed, disappeared

nibandhani
Foundation, origin

nidra
Sleep, sleepy state

nimittam
Efficient cause

nirantara
Without interruptions

nirbhasam
Shining, appearing

nirbhija
Seedless, without a seed

nirgrahya
Distinctly recognizable

nirmana
Forming, creating, fabricating

nirmana citta
Cultured consciousness

nirmita
Measured out, formed, made, created

nirmita citta
Created or cultivated consciousness

nirodha
Restraint, check, obstruction

nirodha citta
Restraining consciousness

nirodha ksana
Moment of restraint

nirodha parinama
Transformation towards restraint

nirodha samskara
Suppression of emerging thought-waves

niruddha
Stopped, restrained, obstructed

nirupakrama
Actions which do not give quick results

nirvicara
Without reflection

nirvitarka
Without analysis

nispatti avastha
State of becoming one with body, mind and self

nitya
Eternal

nivrtti
Resigning, abstinence, cessation

nivrtti marga
Path of abstention from worldly concerns and engagements

niyama
Five individual ethical observances, second of the eight aspects of astanga yoga, purity, contentment, self-discipline, Self-study, and surrender to God

nyasat
Directing, projecting, extending

ojas
Vitality, power, strength, virility, energy, light, splendour

pada

A quarter, a part, a chapter

paksa

To go with the current, to side with, to espouse a side

pañcamahabhutah

Five elements of nature; earth, water, fire, air and ether

pañcatayyah

Fivefold

panka

Mud, mire

panthah

Path, way of being

para

Of others, another’s

parakaya

Another’s body

parakaya pravesa

Entering the body of others (one of the supernatural powers)

parama

Highest, most excellent, best

paramamahatva

Infinitely great, most distant

paramanu

An infinitesimal particle

paramauma

God, Supreme Soul

paramatman

Supreme Soul, Universal Self

parampara

Bound by tradition, lineage, one following the other, proceeding from one to another

pararthabhavana

Re-absorption of phenomenal creation, non-perception of objects

parartham

For the sake of another

pararthatvat

Apart from another

paravairagya

The highest and purest form of renunciation

paricaya

Acquaintance, intimacy

paricayavastha

State of acquisition

paridrstah

Regulated, measured

parijñata

Known

parinama

Change, alteration, transformation

parinama nitya

Termination of mutation or transformation

paripakva

Highly cultivated, quite ripe

paripakva citta

Matured consciousness, ripe consciousness

paripurta

Completely filled, quite full, perfect

parisuddhi

Complete purification, purity

parinapa

Pain, anguish, affliction, grief

paryavasanam

End, termination, conclusion

patala

One of the seven regions under the earth

Patañjali

(pata = falling; añjali = prayer) the author of the Yoga Sutras

phala

Fruit, result

pingala

One of the main naniBs, controller of sympathetic nervous system

pipasa

Thirst

pracara

Coming forth, becoming manifest, being used or applied

pracchardana

Expelling

pradhana

Primary matter, first cause, first principle

pradurbhava

Coming into existence, manifestation

prag

Towards

pragbharam

Gravitational pull

Prahlada

Son of the demon Hiratyakasipu

prajña

Awareness

prajña jyoti

Light of wisdom

prajñatan

Wise person, learned person

prakamya

Freedom of will, attainment of every wish, one of the eight supernatural powers

prakasa

Evident, luminosity, brilliance, splendour

prakrti

Nature

prakrtijaya

Conquest of nature

prakrti jñana

Knowledge of nature

prakrti laya

Merging in nature

prakrtiBnam

Potentialities of nature

pramada

Carelessness

pramana

Correct notion, right conception

Prana

Life force, vital energy, breath

Prana jñana

Knowledge of vital energy

pranamaya kosa

The vital body, organic sheath of the body

Prana prajña

Awareness of energy

pranava

The sacred syllable AUM

Pranavayu

One of the five types of vital energy causing respiration; its seat is the top thoracic region

Prana vrtti

Regulation of breath or energy

pranayama

(prana = vital energy; ayama = expansion, extension). Expansion of the vital energy or life force through restraint of the breath. Fourth of the eight aspects of astanga yoga

pranidhana

Laying on, directing upon, profound religious meditation, surrender

pranta bhumi

(pranta = edge, border, boundary; bhumi = province, region, place) stages of growth in the field of yoga

prapti

The power of obtaining everything, one of the supernatural powers

prapya

To attain

prarabdha karma

Merit or demerit from previous life to experience in the present life

prasadah

Settling down, becoming clear, purity, serenity of disposition

prasanga

Event, connection

prasankhyena

Highest form of intelligence

prasanta

Tranquillity

prasanta citta

Tranquil consciousness

prasanta vahiniB

Flow of tranquillity

prasanta vrtti

Movement of tranquillity

prasava

Bringing forth, procreation, evolution

prasupta

Dormant, asleep

prasvasa

Outbreath, exhalation

prathama

First, foremost

prathama kalpita

First progress, just begun

prati

Against, opposite to

pratibandhiB

Contradicting, objecting, impeaching

pratibha

Light, brilliant conception, genius

pratibhat

The effulgent light of wisdom

pratipaksa

The opposite side, to the contrary

pratipattih

Understanding, knowledge

pratiprasavah

Involution, going back into the original state

pratisedha

Keeping or warding off

pratistha

Establishment, consecration

pratistham

Occupying, seeing

pratisthayam

To stand firmly

pratiyogi

Uninterrupted sequences, equally matched

pratyahara

Fifth of the eight aspects of astanga yoga, withdrawal of senses into the mind

pratyakcetana

The seer

pratyaksa

Real, self-evident

pratyaya

Means, device, firm conviction, faith

pravibhaga

Distinction, differentiation

pravrtti

Evolution, going forwards

pravrtti marga

Path of evolution

prayatna

Persevering effort, great exertion

prayojakam

Usefulness, effect

prthviB

One of the five elements, the earth

punya

Again

punya

Virtue

punyapunya

Virtues and vices

Purana

Legend, belonging to ancient times

Puru

Son of king Yayati

purusa

The Seer, the Soul

purusa jñana

Knowledge of the Soul

purusa khyati

Perception of the Seer

purusartha

Four objects or aims of life: dharma (discharge of duty), artha (acquirement of wealth), kama (gratification of desires) and moksa (final emancipation)

purusartha sunya

Devoid of four aims of life

purusa visesah

Special entity, distinct purusa, God

purusayoh

Of the soul

purva

Earlier than, former, previous, prior

Purva MiBmamsa

A systematical inquiry into the ritual portion of the Veda founded by Jaimini

purvebhyah

In relation with the preceding ones

purvesam

First, foremost

raga

Desire, attachment, pleasure

rajas

One of the three qualities of nature, vibrancy

rajasic

Belonging to the quality of rajas

rakta

Blood, one of the seven constituents of the body

Ramakrsna Paramahamsa

A great sage of the 19th century; a realized soul; guru of Svami Vivekananda

Ramana Maharsi

20th-century Saint of Arutacala

Ramanujacarya

Sri Vaistava teacher of the 12th century (exponent of Visistadvaita or qualified monism)

rasa

Taste, flavour, chyle, one of the seven constituents of the body

rasatala

One of the seven regions under the earth

rasatmaka jñana

Essence of true knowledge

ratna

Gem, precious thing

Ratnakara

Previous name of sage ValmiBki

ratna purita dhatu

The jewel of the blood

roga

Disease, malady, ailment

rogiB

Diseased person

rsabha

Jada Bharata’s father, king of Bharata

rsi

A patriarchal sage, a saint, seer

rtambhara

Full of truth, full of intellectual essence

rtambhara prajña

Truth-bearing wisdom

rudhah

Having ascended, established

rupa

Form, an outward appearance, beauty

ruta

Sound

sa

This

sabdha

Word, sound

sabdhadi

Sound and others

sabdha jñana

Verbal knowledge

sabiBja

With seed

sachi

Wife of Indra, Lord of heaven

sada

Always

sadajñata

Ever alert and aware

Sadanandacarya

Pupil of sriB sankaracarya who is also known as Padmapadacarya as he had the imprints of the lotus flower in his feet. He used to walk over water

sadhaka

Aspirant, a practitioner

sadhana

Practice

sadhana pada

Second part of the Yoga Sutras, on practice

sadharata

Common to all, universal

Sagara

King of Ayodhya

saguna

Good qualities, virtuous qualities

sah

That

sahabhuvah

Side by side, concurrent

sahaja Natural

sahasrara

Cakra or energy centre situated at the crown of the head, symbolized by thousand-petalled lotus

sahita

Deliberate

Sai Baba

20th-century Saint of sirni

saithilya

Laxity

saksatkarana

To see directly with one’s eyes and mind

sakti

Power, capacity, faculty

salambana

With support

samadhi

Putting together, profound meditation, eighth and final aspect of asstanga yoga

samadhi pada

First part of the Yoga Sutras on total absorption

samadhi parinama

Transformation towards tranquillity

samadhi samskara

Imprints of tranquillity

samahita citta

Cultured consciousness, stable consciousness

samana

One of the vayus, vital energy which aids digestion

samapatti

Transformation, assuming the original form, contemplation

samapti

The end

samaya

Condition, circumstance, time

sambandha

Relationship

samhananatva

Compactness, firmness

samhatya

Well-knitted, firmly united

samjña

Resolution, understanding, knowledge

samkhya

Minuteness, precision

Samkhya

One of the divisions of philosophy enumerating the principles of nature and Soul

sampat

Wealth, perfection

samprajñata

Distinguish, know actually

samprajñata samapatti

Untinged transformation of the consciousness

samprayoga

Communion

samskara

Subliminal impressions

samskara phala

Effect of subliminal impressions

samskara sesah

Balance of subliminal impressions

samvedana

Perception, consciousness, understanding, to be known, to be understood

samvega

Cheerful, quick

samyama

Holding together, integration

samyama yoga

Yoga of integration

samyata

Equanimity

samye

Being equal

samyoga

Union

sananda

Unalloyed bliss

sañcita karma

Merit or demerit accumulated from earlier lives

sangha

Association, coming together

sangrhitatva

Held together

sanjivani

A plant that restores life

sankaracarya

8th-century teacher who expounded the philosophy of monism (advaita)

sankarah

Commingle, intermixture, confusion

sankirta

Strewn, pounded together

sannidhau

Vicinity

sannyasasrama

The fourth stage of religious order in which all worldly possessions and affections are relinquished

sannyasi

One who casts off all worldly possessions and affections; an ascetic

santa

Appeased, calmed, pacified

santi

Quiet, peace, serenity, calm

sattosa

Contentment

saptadha

Sevenfold

Saptarsi

The seven rsis or great sages: Agastya, Angirasa, Atri, Bharadvaja, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasistha

sarada

A monastery built at srngeri by Adi sankaracarya in honour of Bharati, the wife of Matnana Misra

sarira

Body

sarira jñana

Knowledge of the body

sarira prajña

Awareness of the body

sarmistha

Daughter of the king of demons and wife of Yayati

sarpa

Snake, to go fast

sarpobhava

Become a snake

sarupyam

Closeness, likeness, nearness

sarvabhaumah

Universal

sarvajña

All-knowing, omniscient, all-wise

sarvam

Whole, all

sarvartha

Wholly, in all ways, at all times

sarvartham

All-pervading

sarvarthata

All-pointedness, many-pointedness

sasmita

Sense of sattvic individuality

sastras

Treatises

sat

Being, pure

satcidananda

(sat = purity; cit = consciousness; ananda = unalloyed bliss) pure unalloyed bliss

sati

Being, being accomplished

satkara

Dedication, devotion

sattva

Luminosity, white, pure

sattva buddhi

Illuminative intelligence

sattvapatti

Experiencing pure sattva

sattvasuddhi

Purity in sattva

satya

Truthfulness, honest, faithful, one of the five yamas

satyaloka

One of the seven aerial regions

sauca

Cleanliness, purity

savAsana

An Asana, used for practice of relaxation and meditation techniques

savicara

Right reflection, deliberation, consideration

savitarka

Right analysis

siddha

The perfect being

siddhi vidya

Knowledge of attainments

siddhih

Attainment, perfection

silam

Virtue

sirsAsana

Headstand

siva

Auspicious, prosperous, the third deity of the Hindu triad, the Destroyer

siva Samhita

A classical text on hatha yoga

smaya

Wonder

smrti

Memory, recollection

sopakrama

Immediate effects of actions

sparsa

Touch

sraddha

Faith, reverence, confidence

sravana

Faculty of hearing

srimad Bhagavatam

One of the sacred Puranas

srngeri sankaracarya

A hermitage for learning according to the

matha

teachings of sañkara

srngeri

A place of worship in South India

srotra

Organ of hearing

stambha

Restraint, suspension

stambha vrtti

Act of holding the breath

sthairya

Steadiness, immovability

sthana

Position, rank

sthira

Firm

sthita

Constant, steady

sthita prajña

A perfect yogi, a steadfast person

sthula

Gross

styana

Langour, sluggishness, lack of interest

subheccha

Right desire

suci

Pure

suddha buddhi

Pure intelligence

suddhan

A pure person

suddhi

Cleanliness, purity

sudra

Working class, one of the four vartas or classes of Hinduism

suka

Son of Vyasa

sukha

Happiness, delight

sukla

White

sukra

Semen, one of the seven constituents of the body

sukracarya

Preceptor of the demons and inventor of elixir of life

suksma

Subtle, soft, fine, minute

suksma sarira

Subtle body

suksmottama

Subtlest of the subtle

surya

Sun

surya sthana

Energy centre for sympathetic nervous system

susumna

Nani which controls central nervous system

susupti

Sleep

susuptyavastha

State of sleep

sutala

One of the seven nether worlds

suvarloka

One of the seven aerial worlds

sva

One’s own

svabhasam

Self-illuminative

svadhistana cakra

Energy centre situated above the organ of generation

svadhyaya

Study of the Self, study of the spiritual scriptures

svami

Owner, master, lord, seer

svapna

Dream

svapnavastha

Dream-filled state

svarasavahi

Current of love of life

svarasavahini

Flow of the fragrance of consciousness

svartha

One’s own, self-interest

svarupa

One’s own state, of true form

svarupamatrajyoti

Light of one’s own form, one’s visage, one’s own sight

svarupa sunya

Devoid of one’s nature

svasa

Inbreath, inhalation

svasa prasvasa

Heavy or laboured or irregular respiration

svayambhu

(svayam = of one’s own account; bhu = existent) incarnation by one’s own will

Swami Ratmdas

Saint of Maharastra

syat

Would happen

ta

They

tad

Their, its, from that

tada

Then, at that time

tadañjadata

Taking the shape of the seer or the known

tadarthah

For that sake, for that purpose

tadeva

The same

tajjah

Born from, sprung from

talatala

One of the seven worlds in the nether region

tamas

Inertia, darkness

tamasic

One of the three gunas of nature: inertia

tantram

Dependent

tanu

Thin, attenuated

tanukaratarthah

Reducing for the purpose of thinning, weakening

tanumanasa

Disappearance of memory and mind

tapa

Pain, sorrow, heat

tapas

Austerity, penance, spiritual practice, devoted discipline, religious fervour

tapoloka

One of the seven aerial worlds

tara

Stars

tarakam

Shining, clear

tasam

Those

tasmin

On this

tasya

In conjunction, its, that, him, his

tat

It, that, his, their

tatah

From that, then, thence, therefore

tatha

All the same

tatparam

The highest, the purest, the supreme

tatprabhoh

Of its Lord

tatra

There, of these

tatstha

Becoming stable

tattva

Principle, real state, reality, truth, essence

tayoh

There, of the two

te

These, they

tejastattva

Element of fire

tha

In Hathayoga Pradipika, it represents consciousness or citta as ‘moon’ which waxes and wanes

Tirumangai alwar

A devotee from South India (8th century A.D.) who built the temple of sri Rañganatha at srirangam by the bank of Kaveri near Trichy

tivra

Vehement, intense, sharp, supreme

traya

Three

tridosa

Disorders of the three humours of the body, vitiation of the bile, blood and phlegm

Trimurthi

The triad of Brahma (creator), Visnu (protector) and siva (destroyer)

trividham

Threefold

tu

And, but

Tukaram

A 17th-century saint of Maharastra

tula

Cotton fibre

tulya

Equal, exactly similar

turyavastha

The fourth state of consciousness, kaivalya

tyaga

Abandonment, renunciation

ubhaya

Of both

udana

One of the five principal vayus (vital energies), situated in the throat region which controls the vocal cords and intake of air and food

udaratam

Highly active

udaya

The rise

udita

Ascended, manifested, generation

uditau

Raising

uktatn

Described

upalabdhi

To find, perceive, recognize

upanimantrate

On invitation, on being invited

Upanisad

(upa = near; ni = down; sat = to sit) literally sitting down near the Guru to receive spiritual instructions

upaPrana

Five supporting vayus

uparaga

Conditioning, colouring

uparaktam

Coloured, reflected

upasarga

Hindrances, obstacles

upasthanam

Approaching, coming up

upavayu

Same as upaPrana

upaya

That by which one reaches one’s aims, means, way, stratagem

upeksa

Indifference or non-attachment towards pleasure and pain

upeksitvat

Expectations

urvasi

A famous mystical damsel, daughter of Nara Narayana

utkrantih

Ascension, levitation

utpanna

Born, produced

utsaha

Cheerfulness

uttaresam

That which follows, subsequent

va

Or, an option, alternatively

vaca

Speech

vacakah

Connoting, denoting, sign, signifying

Vacaspati Misra

A great scholar of the sixth century who wrote a glossary on Vyasa’s commentary on the Yoga Sutras

vahi

Current

vahini (vahita)

Flow

vaira

Hostility

vairagi

A renunciate

vairagya

Renunciation, detachment, dispassion

vairagya marga

Path of renunciation or detachment

vaisaradye

Skilfulness, profound knowledge, undisturbed pure flow

vaisya

Merchant class, one of the four vartas or classes of Hinduism

vajra

Diamond, hard, firm

vak

Power of speech

Vallabha

A 16th-century acarya from South India who believed in pure monism

vamadeva

A sage

vanaprastha

The third stage or order of life (asrama); in which one begins to learn non-attachment while living in the family

varatam

Veil, obstacles

varta

A colour, a cover, an abode, a kind, a quality: four orders divided according to different stages of evolution in men known as brahmana, ksanriya, vaisya and sudra

varta dharma

Duties of communities

varthaha

Faculty of smell

vasana

Desires, impressions

vasikara

Freeing oneself from cravings, bringing into subjugation

vasikara prajña

Knowing the ways to subjugate desires

vasista

A brahmarsi or sage

vasitva

The power to subjugate anyone or anything, one of the supernatural powers

vastu

Thing, substance, object

vastusunyah

Devoid of substances, devoid of things

vasyata

Air, one of the five elements of nature

Veda

Sacred scriptures of the Hindu religion

vedana

Faculty of touch

vedaniyah

To be known, to be experienced

vedanta

(veda = knowledge; anta = end – end of knowledge, one of the orthodox systems of Indian philosophy, considered as later (uttara) mimamsa. The Upanisads are Vedanta (the final parts = ends of the vedas)

vibhaktah

Separate, different, partition

vibhuti

Powers, properties of yoga

vibhuti pada

Third part of the Yoga Sutras which deals with the properties of yoga

vicara

Reason, synthesis, discrimination

vicarata

Right reflection

vicara prajña

Differentiating knowledge of refinement

viccedah

Cessation, stoppage, interruptions

vicchinna

Interrupted

videha

Existing without body, incorporeal

vidharanabhyam

Maintaining, holding, restraining

Vidura

Adviser to King Dhrtarastra in the Mahabharata

vidusah

A wise man, a scholar

vidya

Discriminative knowledge

vigraha

Idol (mula-vigraha = base idol and utsava-vigraha = replica of base idol)

vijñana

Discerning knowledge

Vijñana Bhiksu

(1525–1580 A.D.) the great scholar, author of Yoga Varttika, commentary on Yoga Sutras

vijñana jñana

Stability in intelligence

vijñanamaya kosa

The intellectual or discriminative body

vikalpa

Imagination, fancy

vikaratabhavah

Knowledge gained without the help of the senses, freedom from senses of perception

viksepa

Distraction

viksipta

Agitated, scattered

viniyogah

Application

vipaka

Ripe, mature, result, fruition

viparyaya

Perverse, contrary, unreal cognition

vipraKrsna

Distant

virama

Cessation, rest, repose, pause

virodhat

Obstruction, on account of, opposite

virya

Vigour, energy, courage, potency, valour

visaya

An object of sense, an object, matter, region, sphere, reference, aim, realm

visayavati

Attached to object, related to

visesa

Peculiar, specially itself, particular, distinction

visesa darsinah

Distinction of seer

visesa vidhi

Special injunctions

Visnu

The second deity of the Hindu triad or Trimurthi, the sustainer or the protector of the Universe

visoka

Sorrowless effulgent light

visuddhi cakra

Energy centre situated behind the throat region

vitala

One of the nether worlds

vitaraga

(vita = free from; raga = desire) one who is free from desire; calm, tranquil

vitarka

Analytical thinking, being engrossed in analytical study

vitarka-badhana

Dubious knowledge, obstructing to analytical thinking

vitarka prajña

Intellectual analysis

vitrsta

Freedom from desire, contentment

viveka

Discrimination, discriminative understanding

vivekaja jñanam

Exalted knowledge, exalted intelligence, sacred spiritual knowledge

viveka-khyati

Discriminative intelligence, crown of wisdom

vivekanimnam

Flow of exalted intelligence in consciousness

viveki

One who distinguishes and separates the indivisible soul from the visible world

vivekinah

The enlightened, man of discrimination

vrtti

Waves, movements, changes, functions, operations, conditions of action or conduct in consciousness

vyadhi

Disease, physical disease

vyakhyata

Related, narrated, explained, expounded, commented upon, described

vyakta

Manifest

vyana

One of the vital energies pervading the entire body distributing the energy from the breath and food through the arteries, veins and nerves

Vyasa

A sage, author of Vyasa Bhasya, the oldest commentary on Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras

vyatireka

Keeping away from desire

vyavahita

Concealed

vyavahitanam

Separated

vyavasayatmika buddhi

Experienced subjective knowledge

vyuha

Galaxy, orderly arrangement of a system, disposition

vyutthana

Emergence of thoughts, rising thoughts, outgoing mind

yama

The first of the eight limbs of astanga yoga; five ethical disciplines of yoga: non-violence, truthfulness, non-misappropriation, celibacy and non-greediness

Yama

God of death

yathabhimata

A pleasing thing, a selected thing

yatamana

Disengaging the senses from action

yatnah

Effort, continuous effort

Yayati

Son of King Nahusa

yoga

Yoking, uniting, joining, contacting, union, association, connection, deep meditation, concentration, contemplation on the supreme union of body, mind and soul, union with God

yoga-bhrasta

One who has fallen from the position of yoga, deprived of virtue, fallen from the grace of yoga

Yoga cunamati upanisad

One of the Yoga Upanisads

yoga darsana

(yoga = union; darsana = mirror, insight) like a mirror, yoga reflects one’s soul through one’s thoughts and actions

yogagni

The fire of yoga

yoganusAsanam

The yogic code of conduct

yogAsana

A yogic posture

yogasastra

Science of yoga

yoga sutras

Yoga aphorisms of Patañjali

yoga-svarupa

Natural constitution of yoga, natural states of yoga

Yoga Vasista

Treatise on yoga, spoken by Vasista to Lord Rama, the king of Ayodhya, seventh incarnation of Lord Visnu

yogesvara

Lord Krsna, Lord of Yoga

yogi

Adept of yoga

yoginah

Of a yogi

yogini

Female adept of yoga

yogiraja

King among yogis

yogyata manasah

(yogyata = fitness, ability, capability; manasah = of the mind) a ripe mind

yogyatvani

Fitness to see

Index

The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific passage, please use the search feature of your e-book reader.

Absorption (samadhi), profound meditation and spiritual integration, 4–6, 8, 26, 30, 34, 35, 39, 45–103, 175, 180–1, 182, 192, 194, 219, 242, 246

compared with ultimate emancipation (kaivalya), 8 hindrances to, 37

and integration (samyama), 182, 183–4, 185–6, 188, 190, 201–2

and pure state (samapatti), 93–4, 98–9

stages of awareness, with seed (samprajñata samadhi, or sabija samadhi), 5, 18, 68–70, 71, 72, 98–9, 100, 103

first stage: intellectual analysis (vitarka), 18, 68, 69, 70, 72, 100; with deliberation (savitarka), 68, 69, 98, 100, 111n; with non-deliberation (nirvitarka), 68, 69, 95–6, 98, 100, 111n

second stage: differentiating knowledge (vicara), 18, 68, 69, 70, 72, 100; with reasoning (savicara), 68, 69, 96–7, 98, 100, 111n; with non-reasoning (nirvicara), 68, 69, 96–7, 98, 99, 100, 111n

third stage: bliss (ananda), 18, 68–9, 70, 72, 97, 98, 100, 111n

fourth stage: state of ‘I’ (asmita or asmita rupa samprajñata samadhi), 68, 69, 70, 72, 97, 98, 100, 111n

passive and transitory stage of quietness (virama pratyaya, asamprajñata samadhi or manolaya), 18–20, 22, 56, 69, 70–2, 99, 100, 127

final seedless stage of yoga (nirbija samadhi) or rain-cloud of virtue (dharma meghasamadhi), 5, 6, 9, 18, 22, 69, 71, 72, 74, 99, 100, 103, 182, 278–9, 281–2

Actions and reactions, 24, 40

four types of (karma), 40, 243, 253–5

see also cause and effect (karma)

Adisesa, Lord of serpents, 1–2, 162–3

Afflictions (klesas), 6–7, 23–4, 31, 78–9, 109, 111–13, 117–19, 291

attachment (raga), 17, 23, 111, 112, 115, 132

aversion (dvesa), 23, 111, 112, 116, 132

clinging to life (abhinivesa), 23, 111, 112, 116–17, 132

egoism (asmita), 11–12, 23, 42, 111, 112, 114–15, 132

ignorance (avidya), 6–7, 17, 23–4, 28, 41, 42, 111, 112, 113–14, 132, 134

Ahalya, 8

Aims of life (purustanartha): science of duty (dharma), livelihood (artha), enjoyments of life (kama)

and liberation from worldly life (mokstana), 3–4, 283–7

see also emancipation (kaivalya)

Attachment (raga), 17, 23, 111, 112, 115, 132

Aum see sacred syllable AUM

Aversion (dvesa), 23, 111, 112, 116, 132

Awareness (prajña), seven states of, 29, 77, 132, 137–8

Bhagavad Gita, 3, 71–2, 110, 189, 224–5, 254, 268, 273, 277, 279, 284, 286–7

Bhakti Sutras, 225

Bharati, srimati, 220–1

Body (sarira), 32, 162–3, 195 see also sheaths (kosa)

Brahma, 81, 162

Brahma Sutra, 49

Brain, 13, 69, 96, 98–9, 100, 111n,

Breath (prana), 33, 81, 87, 89, 92, 160–6, 199

Breath control (pranayama), 3, 7, 29, 30, 32–4, 69–70, 92, 140, 142, 160–7, 180, 185, 189, 198, 199, 262, 263

in concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana), 167, 178, 180

Cause and effect (karma), law of, 24, 39, 40, 42, 43, 243, 256

Celestial beings, 233

Cellular body, 57, 235

Cleanliness (sauca), 30, 144, 153–4

Compassion (karustana), 86

Concentration (dharana), 7, 30, 34, 35, 51–2, 140, 142, 167, 175, 178–9, 182, 185

and breath control (pranayama), 167, 178, 180

and integration (samyama), 182, 185, 186, 188

and meditation (dhyana), 180

Conscience (antahkarana), 14, 50, 51, 92, 128

Consciousness (citta), 4, 14–17, 22, 35–6, 38–9, 42–3, 49–51, 53–4, 55, 58, 62, 65, 67, 88, 89, 92, 96, 97, 132, 137–8, 182, 190–202, 251–3, 262–77, 291

cosmic, universal (mahat), 12, 14, 25, 50, 87, 97, 100, 132, 160, 165, 169, 264

distractions (citta viksepa), 83, 86

divine (divya citta), 14, 29, 252, 270

evolution of, 127

five fluctuations, 56–61

correct knowledge (pramana), 56, 57–8, 61, 132

fanciful knowledge (vikalpa), 15, 56, 59, 61, 132

illusory perceptions (viparyaya), 15, 56, 58–9, 61, 132

memory (smrti), 15, 56, 61, 132

sleep (nidra), 15, 56, 59–60, 61, 90, 132

five qualities of intelligence: ignorance (muda), distracted (ksipta), agitated (viksipta), attentive (ekagra) and controlled (niruddha), 56, 61, 186,

fluctuations (vrtti) and movement in, 4, 7, 14, 49–50, 51–2, 53–5, 56–7, 60, 63, 64, 132, 265, 268, 291; as visible state (drsta), invisible state (a), painful (Klista) and non-painful (aklista), 55, 62

four planes of: unconscious (nidra), subconscious (svapna), conscious (jagrata) and superconscious (turya or samadhi), 90, 197–8

and nirbija samadhi, 103

order of transformations (parinama), 190–4

restraining (nirodha parinama), 188, 190, 191, 192, 194, 200, 252, 258

to samadhi (samadhi parinama), 188, 189, 190, 192, 194, 200

to no-pointed (ekagrata parinama), 188, 190, 193–4, 195, 199, 200

restraint of (citta vrtti nirodha), 11, 14, 49–52, 61–2, 103, 187–91

seven states of awareness, 29, 77, 132, 137–8

three facets: mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi), ego (ahamDkara), 47

universal and individual (cit, citta), the ‘seer’ and the ‘seen’, 14, 42–3, 131–2, 262–73, 274–7

Contemplation see absorption (samadhi)

Contentment (santosa), 30, 144, 155

Continence, chastity (brahmacarya), 30, 142–3, 151–2

Death, fear of (abhinivesa), 23, 111, 112, 116–7, 132

Desires, impressions (vasana), 15, 41, 255, 273–4

freedom from, 8, 55, 61–2, 64–5, 89, 241

Detachment (vairagya), 16, 17–19, 24, 61–70, 134

five states (yatamana, vyatireka, ekendriya, vasikara, paravairagya), 65, 66, 67

path of renunciation (vairagya marga or virakti marga), 241

and renunciation, 17–18, 19, 61–2, 232

and sense-withdrawal (pratyahara), 168–71

supreme (paravairagya), 65, 66

Dhammapada, 75

Dhruva, Prince, 4, 211–12, 247

Direct perception (pratyaksa), 15, 56, 57

Disciplined code of conduct (anusAsanam), 16, 48–9

Discrimination (viveka), 27, 61

Discriminative intelligence (viveka-khyati), 278

Disease, physical (vyadhi), 83

(rogas), three types: self-inflicted, genetic, caused by imbalance of elements, 7, 84, 149

Divine cosmic energy (kundalini), 184

Dream-state (svapna), 89–90

Drugs and herbs, 246

Duty (dharma), 4, 283, 284–5

Effort (yatnah), 63

Ego (ahamDkara), 8, 11–12, 26, 34, 35, 47, 49, 50, 67, 92, 98, 128, 132

Egoism, sense of self (asmita), 11–12, 23, 42, 97–8, 111, 112, 114–15, 132, 229, 250–1

pure state (sasmita), 70, 100, 250

Eightfold path of yoga (anga yoga), 4, 6, 24, 29–30, 140–2, 178–9, 184

Elements (mahabhuta) of nature (prakrti), 226–7

and corresponding kosas, 12, 51, 100

earth, water, fire, air, ether, 25, 51, 100, 195, 227

subtle (tanmatra), 26, 100

Emancipation see liberation (kaivalya)

Energy centres (cakras)

anus (muladhara), 210

sacral (svadhisstDana), 210

navel (nabhi or manipuraka), 210, 212–13

heart (anahata), 210, 216

throat (visuddhi), 210, 213

brow (ajña), 198, 210

crown (sahasrara), 210, 215

Energy of nature (prakrti shakti or kundalini), 184

Ethical disciplines (yama), 6, 29, 30, 31, 38, 62, 86, 92, 140–2, 171, 176

effects of, 30

and freedom from avarice (aparigraba), 30

non-violence (ahimDsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), continence (brahmacarya), 30, 142–3, 149, 150, 151–2

Evolution and involution, 25–6, 62, 67, 199, 132–3

stages of (avastha), 19, 194–6, 197

Faith (sraddha), 73, 75

Flawless jewel (abhijata mani), 94

Friendliness (maitri), 21, 86, 208

Gandhi, Mahatma, 156, 184

God (isvara), 13, 20, 78–81

surrender to (isvara pranidhana), 6, 23, 30, 78, 85, 108, 157

Gonika, yogini, 2

Greed, abstention from (aparigraha), 30, 142–3, 152–3

Hanuman, Lord, 4, 225

Happiness (sukha), 86, 114, 115, 155, 157

Ignorance (avidya), 6–7, 17, 23–4, 28, 41, 42, 111, 112, 113–14, 132, 134 seven states of, 28

Illuminative (sattvic) quality of nature, 11

Imagination and fancy (vikalpa), 15, 56, 59, 61, 132

Impressions, subliminal (samDskara), 5, 8, 15, 40, 71, 102, 191

Indifference to pleasures and pains (upeksa), 86

Indra, Lord, 162

Inertia, darkness (tamas), 5, 127, 128

Inference (anumana), 57, 101–2

Integration (samDyama) of concentration, meditation and absorption, 34–5, 175, 182–5, 201, 216–17, 234–6, 242

compared with nirbija samadhi, 186

and supernatural powers, 202, 207, 208, 209–18, 220–30

Intelligence (buddhi), 11, 34, 35–6, 47, 49, 50–1, 57–8, 98, 100, 128 pure, 58

Jada Bharata, 74–5, 85

Jñanesvar, Saint, 224

Joy (mudina), 86

Kalimata, Goddess, 74–5

Kapila, 224

Karma see cause and effect

Knowledge, wisdom (jñana), 90, 101–2

highest (vidya), 114

illusory (mithya jñana) or wrong, 58–9

true (vivekaja jñanam), 38, 58, 234–8

verbal (sabdha jñana), 59

see also awareness (prajña); ignorance (avidya)

rsn, Lord, 124

see also Bhagavad Gita

Kundalini see energy of nature

Liberation, emancipation and freedom (kaivalya), 3, 4, 8–9, 26, 38, 39, 43, 67, 127, 135–6, 232, 237–8, 239–87

Life, clinging to (abhinivesa), 23, 111, 112, 116–17, 132

Life force (prana) see breath

Light, sorrowless (visoka jyotismati), 88

of awareness (prajña alokah), 183

Luminosity (sattva), 5, 39, 99

Mahabharata, 123–4, 24

Mahabhasya, 2

Mandavya, Sage, 246–7

Matsya, yogi, 8

Matter, primary (pradhana), 97

Meditation (dhyana), 3, 7, 30, 34, 35, 51–2, 90–1, 92, 118, 140–2, 175, 179–81

and absorption (samadhi), 181

and breath control (prañayama), 167, 178, 180

and integration (samyama), 182, 185, 186, 188

Memory (smrti), 15, 40, 56, 61, 95–6, 132, 256

Mind (manas), 11, 12–13, 14–15, 25, 41–2, 47, 49, 81, 92, 12

ripeness of (yogyata manasah), 167

see also consciousness

Misconception (viparyaya), 15, 56, 58–9, 61, 132

Misra, Mandana, 220–1

Moment (ksana), 187–90, 234–6, 281–2

experience of ‘now’, 235–6

Moment and movement, 38, 259–60

Mundakopanisad, 270

Nahusa, King, 7–8, 120, 247

Nandi, 8, 119–20

Nature (prakrti), 11, 24, 25–6, 27–8, 43, 66, 88, 97–8, 125–6, 128, 160

cosmology, 25–6

cosmic intelligence (mahat), 12, 14, 25, 50, 67, 87, 97, 100, 128, 132, 160, 165, 169

non-specific (avisesa) and manifest (visesa) stages, 25, 26, 66, 67, 126, 132–3

noumenal (alinDga) and phenomenal (linDga) stages, 25, 26, 66, 67, 133

root of nature (mula prakrti), 25, 26, 98, 100, 132

elements (mahabhuta) of (earth, water, fire, air, ether), 25, 51, 100, 195, 227

energy of (prakrti shakti or kundalini), 184

evolution and involution of, 25, 26, 132–3 and stages of, 66

freedom from (gunatitan, gunavaitnatityam), 39, 66

merging in (prakrtilaya), 72–3

and order of transformations (dharma, laksana and avastha parinama), 190, 194–6, 200, 201

principles (tattvas) of, 25, 128

qualities of (gunas), 3, 25, 26, 39, 40, 41–2, 67, 125–6, 127, 128

Nerves (nadi)

sympathetic, parasympathetic and central nervous systems, 147, 212, 214–15

Non-attachment see detachment (vairagya)

Non-existence (abhava), 59–60

Non-physical state of existence (videha), 72–3, 225–6

Non-stealing (asteya), 30, 142–3, 150

Non-violence (ahimDsa), 30, 149

Now (atha), 44, 48, 49

Obstacles (antaraya), 21, 83–4

Painful states (klistaa), 54–5

Painless states (aklistDa), 54–5

Passive and transient state of quietness (manolaya), 18–20, 22, 56, 69, 70–2, 99, 100, 127

Peace (santi), 193, 196–9

Personal disciplines (niyama), 6, 29, 30–1, 38, 62, 92, 144–5, 147, 158, 176

Personality, split, 59

Postures (Asana), 3, 7, 12, 29, 30, 31–2, 57, 69–70, 89, 91, 92, 95–6, 140–2, 146–7, 157–9, 171, 180, 199, 235, 292

effects of, 31–2

Powers and properties of Yoga (vibhuti), 3, 7–8, 36–9, 173–238

and integration (samDyama), 202, 207, 208, 209–18, 220–30, 234–6

as obstacles to progress, 37–8, 175, 176–7, 219, 232

supernatural powers (siddhis), 36–7, 175–7, 201–16, 218, 219–31,

Practice (sadhana), 3, 5, 6–7, 19, 21, 22, 26, 34, 37, 38, 55, 62, 65, 75, 105–71, 177, 242

Practice (abhyasa), repetitive, mechanical, 5–6, 16–20, 21–2, 61–5, 67, 85, 140

and detachment (vairagya), 5–6, 61–2, 65, 67

levels of, 19

religious, devotional (anusthana), 62, 140

Practitioner (sadhaka)

four levels of, 18, 19

Principles of nature (tattva), 25, 128

Religious fervour (tapas), 6, 8, 23, 30, 39

Renunciation see detachment

Restraint of consciousness (citta vrtti nirodha), 11, 14, 49–52, 61–2, 103, 187–91

see also detachment (vairagya)

Sacred syllable AUMD (pranava), 20, 80–2

Samkhya philosophy, 25, 33

sanDkara, Sage, 220–1

Self-Realization, 3, 21, 23, 27, 34, 65, 82, 98

Self-study (svadhyaya), 6, 23, 30, 144, 156

Sense-withdrawal (pratyahara), 7, 29–30, 34, 92, 168–70

Senses of perception, freedom from (vikaranabhavah), 230–1

Sensual enjoyment (bhoga), 121, 125, 126, 245

Sheaths (kosa), 12, 47, 100

and corresponding elements, 51

mental and intellectual, 47

siva, Lord, 1–2, 81, 120, 162, 163

Sleep (nidra), 15, 56, 59–60, 61, 73, 89–90, 132

three types, 60

Sorrow (duskha), 84, 86, 116, 122, 148

Soul, spirit, 13–14

(atma, atman), 11, 12, 25,

great (mahatma), 81

individual in human body (jivatma), 13

merging with nature (prakrti), 25, 26, 51

(purusa), 13, 25–6

special entity (purusa visestanas), 97

supreme (paramatma), 4, 13, 90

universal self (antaratma), 243

vision of (atmadarsana), 47

Speech (vaca), 81

Spiritual lustre, radiance (dipti), 140

Spiritual science (moksa sastra), 48

srimad Bhagavatam, 162

Stages of life (asrama), 3

Sun (Surya), 209

Time (kala), 41, 201–2, 234–6, 259–61

Tirumangai alwar, Saint, 222–3

Transformation (parinama) see consciousness

Truth-bearing wisdom (rtambhara prajña), 9, 101

Truthfulness (satya), 30, 142–3, 150

Universal cosmic consciousness (mahat), 12, 14, 25, 50, 67, 87, 97, 100, 128, 132, 160, 165, 169, 264

urvasi, 8

Uttanapada, King, 211, 247

Vedanta philosophy, 49

Vibrancy, energy (rajas), 5, 125–6, 127

Vice (apunya), 86

Vigour (virya), 73, 75, 151

Violence see non-violence (ahimDsa)

Virtue (punya), 86

Visnu, Lord, 1–2, 81, 162, 163, 212

Visnu Purana, 9

Vyasa, Sage, 7, 9, 72, 74, 138, 179, 184

Wakeful state (jagratavastha), 89–90, 197

Wisdom, 7, 9, 22, 64, 69, 72, 100

Illuminating, 102

(prajña), seven states of, 28

see also knowledge (jñana)

Word (sabdba), 94, 202–3

Yayati, King, 246, 247

Yoga of action (kriyayoga), 6, 22, 108–9, 110

Yogis, 43–4, 233

characteristics of perfect, 244–5

five types of, 39, 246

King among (Yogiraja), 43

Invocatory Prayers

yogena cittasya padena vacaa
malaa sarirasya ca vaidyakena
yopakarottaa pravaraa muninaa
patañjalia prañjaliranato’smi
abahu Purusaakaraa
sankha cakrasi dharinam
sahasra sirasaa svetaa
pranamami patañjalim

Let us bow before the noblest of sages, Patañjali, who gave yoga for serenity and sanctity of mind, grammar for clarity and purity of speech, and medicine for perfection of health.

Let us prostrate before Patañjali, an incarnation of Adisesa, whose upper body has a human form, whose arms hold a conch and a disc, and who is crowned by a thousand-headed cobra.

Where there is yoga, there is prosperity and bliss with freedom.

yastyaktva rupamadyaa prabhavati jagato’nekadhanugrahaya praksinaklesarasirvisamavisadharo’nekavaktras subhogi sarvajñanaprasutirbhujagaparikaras pritaye yasya nityaa devohisas sa vovyatsitavimalatanuryogado yogayuktas

Let us prostrate before Lord Adisesa, who manifested himself on earth as Patañjali to grace the human race with health and harmony.

Let us salute Lord Adisesa of the myriad serpent heads and mouths carrying noxious poisons, discarding which he came to earth as single-headed Patañjali in order to eradicate ignorance and vanquish sorrow.

Let us pay our obeisance to Him, repository of all knowledge, amidst His attendant retinue.

Let us pray to the Lord whose primordial form shines with pure and white effulgence, pristine in body, a master of yoga who bestows on us his yogic light to enable mankind to rest in the house of the immortal soul.

A note from Sir Yehudi Menuhin

It is a remarkable accomplishment and a tribute to the continuity of human endeavour that today, some 2500 years after yoga was first described by the renowned Patañjali, his living heritage is being commented upon and introduced to the modern world by one of yoga’s best exponents today, my own teacher B.K.S. Iyengar.

There are not many practical arts, sciences, and visions of human perfection of body, mind and soul which have been in practice over so long a period without attachment to a particular religious creed or catechism. Anyone can practise yoga, and this important contribution to the history of yoga and its validity today is for everyone.

YEHUDI MENUHIN

Hints on Transliteration* and Pronunciation

Sanskrit is an Indo-European language. It is ancient; the language of the Indian scriptures which claim to be eternal. They were recited or chanted in Sanskrit thousands of years ago, and still are today.

The word Sanskrit itself means ‘perfect’, ‘perfected’, ‘literary’, ‘polished’. It is a highly organized language, with a complex grammar. However, some works are written in a simpler form which it is not so difficult for us to grasp. To these types of work belong the Bhagavad Gita, the Upanisads, and also the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali.

Sanskrit letters, both vowels and consonants, are arranged consecutively according to their organ of pronunciation, starting with throat (guttural), then palate (palatal), then a group of sounds called cerebral (modern ‘retroflex’, which may not originally belong to the Indo-European group), then dental and labial. After that come semi-vowels, sibilants, and a full aspirate. Philologists have given these sounds various names, but we are giving the approximate equivalent of their Sanskrit meanings.

These placings apply to vowels and to consonants.

The following is a list of vowels, which includes diphthongs, a nasal (half ‘n’ sound) and an aspirate (‘h’ sound). The vowels are short and long, the diphthongs long. The aspirate sound repeats its preceding vowel, (e.g. a: = aha, i: = ihi, etc.):

The following are the consonants and semi-vowels. The first five groups consist of 1) a leading hard consonant, 2) its aspirated form, 3) a corresponding soft consonant, 4) its aspirated form, and 5) its nasal consonant.

The following should be noted:

1) The ‘h’ sound of the aspirated consonants should always be pronounced.

2) To pronounce the sounds in the ‘cerebral’ group, the tongue is curled back (retroflexed) and the roof of the palate is then hit with the back of the tip of the tongue.

3) The dental group is similar to English, only the tongue touches the back of the teeth in pronouncing them.

4) There are some local variants in pronunciation.

5) An oblique stroke under a consonant shows that it is pronounced without its intrinsic vowel.

The letters are put together to form a syllabary, and also to form ‘conjunct’ consonants in various combinations.

* The transliteration marks used are internationally accepted.

List of important terms in the text

Throughout the Yoga Sutras, certain particularly important terms and concepts are repeatedly referred to and discussed. The reader who is not familiar with yoga philosophy or with Sanskrit may find the following short list of these vital terms helpful. A full list of Sanskrit words with their English equivalents is given in the Glossary.

yoga | Union of body, mind and soul, and with God
astanga yoga | Eight aspects of yoga described by Patañjali as follows:
  yama |   Restraints on behaviour
  niyama |   Spiritual observances
  Asana |   Seat, posture, practice of postures
  pranayama |   Expansion of vital energy through control of breath
  pratyahara |   Withdrawal of the senses
  dharana |   Concentration
  dhyana |   Meditation
  samadhi |   Complete absorption
samyama | Integration (of dharana, dhyana and samadhi)
citta | Consciousness, composed of three aspects, as follows:
  manas |   Mind
  buddhi |   Intelligence
  ahamkara |   Ego
asmita | Sense of self
vrttis | Thought-waves
nirodha | Control, restraint, cessation
abhyasa | Practice
vairagya | Renunciation, detachment
sadhana | Practice; discipline in pursuit of a goal
sadhaka | Practitioner, aspirant
dharma | Science of duty, observance of duties
kosa | Sheath, layer
klesa | Affliction
avidya | Ignorance, lack of spiritual knowledge, the root cause of all afflictions
duskha | Sorrow, grief
karma | Action and its results; universal law of cause and effect
jñana | Knowledge, wisdom
bhakti | Devotion
saaskara | Subliminal impressions
prana | Life force, vital energy, breath
pada | Part, quarter, chapter
purusa | The soul, the seer
prakrti | Nature
mahat | The great principle of nature, cosmic intelligence
gunas | The qualities of nature:
  sattva |   luminosity
  rajas |   vibrancy
  tamas |   dormancy, inertia
kaivalya | Liberation, emancipation
Isvara | God
atman | The individual spirit, seer, soul
Brahman | The Universal Spirit, Soul

On Yoga

Yoga is an art, a science and a philosophy. It touches the life of man at every level, physical, mental, and spiritual. It is a practical method for making one’s life purposeful, useful and noble.

As honey is sweet from any part of the honeycomb, so is yoga. It enables every part of the human system to become attuned to its essence, the conscious seer within. Yoga alone enables the practitioner to perceive and experience the world within and around himself, to touch the divine joy of all creation, and then to share that nectar of divine wealth and happiness with his fellow beings.

The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali are concise and compact. No word is superfluous. They are compiled in such a way as to cover all the various facets of life, exploring each in depth. Patañjali shows the initiated as well as the uninitiated, the intelligent and the unintelligent, ways of adopting the principles of yoga and adapting its techniques, of plumbing each sutra, so that one may grasp it with integrity, purity and divinity.

Yoga is a friend to those who embrace it sincerely and totally. It lifts its practitioners from the clutches of pain and sorrow, and enables them to live fully, taking a delight in life. The practice of yoga helps the lazy body to become active and vibrant. It transforms the mind, making it harmonious. Yoga helps to keep one’s body and mind in tune with the essence, the soul, so that all three are blended into one.

For a number of years, my pupils and friends have been asking me to express the profound depths of each sutra of Patañjali’s yoga with a simple and lucid translation, together with my explanatory comments, to help people understand and follow the path of evolution. I have therefore, after some hesitation, undertaken this work for the benefit of my pupils and others interested in the subject.

In ancient times, knowledge in the form of traditional lore such as the Vedas and Upanisads was passed on orally. Now, most of this teaching is lost. We have to depend upon written sources in order to gain access to the past, to grasp this heritage which is concerned with the science of knowing and realizing the spiritual oasis which lies within us.

It is difficult to learn through books, but they are our only means of progress until we come across that rarity, a true teacher or master. Mindful of my limitations and my comparatively restricted ability to explore the fine nuances of each sutra, I have nevertheless undertaken this task in an attempt to help my fellow practitioners, so that they may be aided by this practical guide in their search for their own inner identity.

There are a number of commentaries and works on Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras, but very few deal with the practical needs of genuine seekers. The translations are sometimes difficult to understand and the commentaries are heavy and obscure. All interpretations differ. Even intellectual giants like Vyasa, Vacaspati Misra and Vijñana Bhiksu, on whom all later commentators depend, are in disagreement with one another. Various differing translations are available, creating confusion in the mind of the seeker. Will my commentary suffer the same fate? I sincerely hope not, for in my heart of hearts I am satisfied that the task of helping my fellow travellers on the path of yoga, by providing a commentary such as this, is well worth undertaking, owing to the scarcity of practical guidance in this domain.

I am neither a learned pundit nor a scholarly academician. To help yoga practitioners with less knowledge than myself, I have introduced several dictionary definitions for each word contained in the sutras. I have selected those which carry conviction for me, in the light of my own firm practice and experience.

Yoga is an ocean of lore, and this book is just a drop in that ocean. I ask forgiveness if I have erred or digressed from the subject. It is my duty to seek knowledge, and I shall be glad to receive constructive criticisms and suggestions, for incorporation in future editions.

May this manual act as fuel to the fire of practice, so that aspirants may gain some glimmer of light, until such time as they find teachers who can further enhance their knowledge and experience.

I hope that those who read this book in conjunction with my other works, Light on Yoga, Light on pranayama, The Art of Yoga and The Tree of Yoga (HarperCollinsPublishers), may derive even greater advantage by adapting the various interpretations of the meaning of the sutras to the light of their own experience.

If this work helps those who practise yoga, I shall feel that I have contributed my humble share.

Acknowledgements

First of all, I should express my gratitude to my esteemed friend, the late Mr Gerald Yorke, reader for Allen & Unwin who originally published Light on Yoga and Light on pranayama. He taught me a tremendous amount about the writing of books through his collaboration in these earlier works. In his admonitions about my style, Mr Yorke was as forceful as my guru, Sri T. Krishnamacharya, was about my yoga.

Though I was a teacher with thirty years of experience, I had never attempted to write even an article on yoga. Also, my English in those days was not good. The first writing I attempted was Light on Yoga, which was to become a standard textbook.

When he first saw my 600-odd photographs together with the text, he was impressed by the illustrations and their explanations. He acknowledged the quality and originality of the technical part, but thought the introductory section was too full of literary allusions and needed explanatory notes.

‘You have to rewrite and bring the introduction up to the level of the practical side or else the book will never see publication,’ he told me. ‘No doubt with your direct techniques you are a first-class teacher, but as a writer, you have everything to learn.’

Gerald Yorke took immense trouble to give me guidelines for reworking the text so that rhythm and style should accord and bring homogeneity to the book. His encouragement was my touchstone, spurring me to express my thoughts in as exact and precise a form as possible. Since then I hold him to be my ‘literary guru’.

When I was in England in the 1980s, I called on him with the manuscript of The Art of Yoga. He disclaimed any knowledge of art, and suggested instead that I write on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, promising, as philosophy was his interest, to help me with it. Nevertheless, on our parting, he said, ‘Leave the Art of Yoga with me and let me see.’ Within a few days of my return home he sent the manuscript back, saying that he might not live to see it through. His premonition was sadly fulfilled, as I received the manuscript on the same day that he left the earth.

So this work is the fruit of his initiative combined with the subsequent insistence of my pupils. May it fulfil all these hopes.

My thanks are also due to Mrs Shirley D. French and to my daughter Geeta for going through the manuscript and for their valuable suggestions.

I am grateful to Sri C. V. Tendulkar for retyping the manuscript several times with much patience, and to my pupil Mr Patxi Lizardi of Spain, for elegantly typing the final copy with great devotion and style. My thanks are also due to Mrs Silva Mehta for reading the proofs.

Finally, I would like to thank my friends and pupils, Mrs Odette Plouvier and Mr John Evans for their help in completing this work. Mrs Plouvier generously made it possible for John to make lengthy stays in Pune, where he was able to correct my English and offer useful suggestions for the presentation of the work. Having him near me helped me to formulate my ideas and bring to life aspects of the sutras which might otherwise have lain dormant. I am grateful to them for their help.

I express my gratitude to Julie Friedeberger for the care she took in editing the book, retaining my style and tone.

I am also indeed grateful to HarperCollinsPublishers for publishing and presenting my work to a worldwide public.

In ending this preface, I pray Patañjali to bless the readers so that the illuminative rays of yoga may penetrate and reach them, and that poise and peace may flow in them as a perennial river flows into the sea of spiritual wisdom.

By the Same Author:

The Art of Yoga
The Concise Light on Yoga
Light on Prãnãyãma
Light on Yoga
The Tree of Yoga

Copyright

Thorsons
An Imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers
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Hammersmith, London W6 8JB

The website address is: www.thorsonselement.com

and Thorsons are trademarks of
HarperCollinsPublishers Limited

Published by Thorsons 1996
Published by The Aquarian Press 1993
First published in Great Britain by George Allen & Unwin, 1966
This edition published by Thorsons 2002

12

© B.K.S. Iyengar 1993

B.K.S. Iyengar asserts the moral right to
be identified as the author of this work

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